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UKRAINE
ISSN 1726-4499
Spacetime & Substance
International Physical Journal
Volume 3, No. 5 (15), 2002
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of
Transcription, Translation and Replication JSC
UKRAINE
Spacetime & Substance International Physical Journal
ISSN 1726-4499
Certi cate of the series AB, No. 4858, issued by the State Committee for Information Policy, TV and Broadcasting of Ukraine (February 12, 2001).
The Journal is published by Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC(Kharkiv, Ukraine).
It is a discussion journal on problems of theoretical and experimental physics in the eld of research of space, time, substance and interactions. The Journal publishes: || tahpepltihcaeotiroiensocfotmhbeoinriiensgfsopradcees,ctriimptei,ognraavnidt/aotironexapnladnoatthioenrss ionftperraocpteirotniess(ionfctluhdeiUngnitvheersEeiannstdeimn'iscrSoRcoasmndosG; R); | mathematical models and philosophical bases, which touch the description of a physical reality; | description of set-ups aimed at the realization of fundamental physical experiments and the forthcoming results; | discussion of published materials, in particular, those questions, which still have not a correct explanation.
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& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 193{206 Spacetime Substance,
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC
EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION FORMATION THROUGH THE THERMAL RADIATION OF METAGALAXY STARS
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin1
Radiophysical Research Institute, N.Novgorod, Russia
Received Desember 2, 2002
The paper is devoted to the development of the theory of microwave background formation through the optical radiation of Metagalaxy stars which is transformed due to the redshift into the microwave and infrared star background radiation. An application of the theory to the model of a stationary nonexpanding Universe of a size not less than 40{50 thousand Mpc shows that the star microwave background is not strictly the blackbody one. Its brightness temperature and spectral density correspond to 2:73K in Rayleigh-Jeans region of the background  > 1mm, but grow signi cantly in submillimeter,infrared and optical wave ranges. This prediction is con rmed by available measurements up to optical wavelengths. Besides, the value and dependence of small-space background uctuations on the angular resolution and the wavelength predicted by the theory is in a good agreement with the experimental data. Finally, the fact, mysterious from the background relic origin point of view, of equality of the volume background energy density and the optical star radiation energy has a very simple and natural explanation. An application of the theory to the closed model of the Universe in the big-bang cosmology shows that at wavelengths  > 1mm the star background is negligibly small (no more then 0.1K), but at submillimeter waves it signi cantly exceeds 2.7K that comes into con ict with the hypothesis of the background relic origin and the idea of the big bang. It follows from the results obtained that the observable nonblackbody electromagnetic background is not a relic one and it has a star origin.
For majority opinion to change on the correctness of the hot big-bang cosmology, it is clear that one or more of the arguments given above must be seen to fail ... . However, if a change does occur, it will probably come from one of three directions: ... b) A demonstration that there is an other plausible mechanism which could be responsible for the MBR, probably related to the idea that it does not have a perfect blackbody spectrum and/or that it could not have been coupled to the matter at an earlier epoch (Burbidge, 1989, p. 988)
Introduction
The idea to explain the microwave background radiation by sources of di erent nature is not new, but it has not yet been worked out in any concrete form.
In this paper we investigate a possibility to explain the observed microwave background by the thermal radiation of the Metagalaxy stars. For this purpose it is evident to use some cosmological models of the structure and evolution of the Universe. The problem of the contribution of the star integral radiation in standard cosmology models was studied earlier. First studies in this direction were carried out by McVittie(1962). On the methodical basis of this work Doroshkevich and Novikov(1964) have published only results of colculations for di erent models of the standard cosmology.
1e-mail: redshift0@narod.ru
The methods of calculations were not given. It has
been shown, in particular, that at a wavelength of ob-
ssetarvraitnitoengraol
> 1mm the volume energy radiation is much less than
density of the the blackbody
radiation with the temperature T = 1K . There was
an armation (Parijskij and Sunyaev 1973) that \the
observed relic radiation cannot be explained by the in-
tegral radiation of discrete sources" in standard cosmol-
ogy models. To calculate the radiation of galaxies, as
correctly noted by Zel'dovich and Novikov (1967), \is
of prime importance in a hot model since it is the back-
ground on which the relic radiation of the model itself
is to be observed."
This is a valuable but unused so far test of the
background relic origin theory. Recently there have
been some serious experimental demonstrations that
the standard cosmology does not re ect any more a
real state of matter and radiation in the Universe (lu-
194
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
minosity of galaxies, their dimensions and evolution) (Segal 1992; Troitskij 1992,1994). In this connection and due to existing alternative cosmological theories it becomes important to explain the microwave by other physical reasons, in particular, by the optical radiation of stars in distant galaxies transformed into the radiofrequency band owing to the redshift of the radiation of stars along the path to an observer.
In this formulation the problem requires justi ed physical procedures of calculation for its solution which are absent in full measure so far. The method of calculation and the rst estimations presented earlier (Troitskij 1994) had shown that in a static nonexpanding Universe the 3K background can be explained by the thermal radiation of stars if the size of the stationary Universe is at least by an order more than that of the generally adopted. In this present paper we give a detailed physical justi cation of the calculation method which is then applied to BGR calculation for di erent models of the Universe including the standard one. A comparison is made for the results obtained for di erent models with the observed characteristics of the microwave bthaactkgtrhoeuonredt.icaTlhmisomdealymaosgtoaoddeqteusattetowcithhootshee trheiasliotyr (see reviews of Baryshev 1992, Burbidge 1989). All said above justi es the statement of the present work.
1. Pbahcyksgicraolunbdasifsoromf asttaiornmicrowave
To determine this radiation let us consider the Uni-
verse as the Euclidean space lled with matter in the
form of galaxies being the clusters of stars of di erent
spectral classes. We suppose that the spatial distri-
bution of galaxies in the Metagalaxy space is uniform
and isotropic and their mean parameters over a su-
ciently large volume do not depend practically on the
distance. We suggest as well the star thermal radia-
tion as a blackbody one. At rst let us consider the
solution of the problem in a simpli ed form taking the
temperature of all stars equal in the whole galaxy. Let
n gal=Mpc be the mean volume density of galaxies, m,
the mean number of stars in the galaxies, r, their mean
radius, T ,the mean temperature of their photospheres.
Let us take into account that the stars in galaxies are
not practically projected to which other.
Let us nd the spectral power density of the ther-
mthaelarnatdeinantiaonap eurtxurfreowmitshtarresceapttiroandidoiafgrerqaumen
cyster0adin.
The full ux from the galaxies volume element R2
dR is
at
metric
distance
R
in
d = F (; T ) r2n m R2
dR d:
(1)
Here  is the radiation frequency of stars in their own reference frame, F(; T) is the Plank's function
for the spectral density of the star blackbody emissivi-
ty W=cm2Hz sr. Along the path of propagation up to
a telescope antenna this radiation at frequency  will
have three types of attenuation and a frequency trans-
formation due to the redshift. The rst type is the
attenuation in R2 times, the second type is the energy
absorption in the propagation medium which we shall
describe by the function (R). And at last the third
type of attenuation is connected with the redshift of fre-
quency  up To determine
to observation frequency this type of attenuation
th0er=e
=(z + 1). is no need
to use any hypothesis on the redshift nature except the
fact of its existence. Let us consider the star radiation
with a spectral density F(T) at frequency  in a nar-
row frequency band d . At the observation point all
tfstrhpimeieqsceutsserpandelcucitederseutnomsit(thwzyei0+lF:ls5p1b(e)ec0tsrTeaue)nnmdssichnoicfn(+etzterd0i+at:sc5d1toii)nowncnrweiwsaistictehohmuinbnpoce(hunzansnd+agateer1ddy)
in the same times by weakening of the quantum ener-
gy from h spectrum is
etqouhal0t.o
Thus, the energy the integral of F
of the shifted ( T) in band
=(z + 1) i.e.
F( T) =(z + 1) = F( T) 0;
where well at
a
p0ur=ely
=(z + 1). This result is obtained as quantum approach. Indeed, radiation
F( T) d for very narrow band d is a practically a monochromatic one and its power is proportional to
h . At the reception point this monochromatic radia-
tion (z +
will have 1) times
aesnceorgmypparreodpowrtitiohntahletoradhia0t,edi.eo.nel.esTs hine
same extinction will be as well in the case of a wide
reception band, overlapping all the spectrum of the ob-
served radiation. To illustrate this point let us nd the
total energy received As above, we suggest
ftrhoemsotuhrecesoruardcieatwioitnhinreidtsshfirftamze.
of reference have Planck spectrum. In this case each
frequency at the observer of the whole spectrum ex-
tending from  = 0 to  ! 1 will have a shift to zero frequency decreasing in (z + 1) times. This spectrum take the form
d
0F
(0)
=
2h
c2
03(z
+
1)3

exp
h0(z +
kT
1)

1
1 d0;
W=cm2sr;
werh'serreefer0en=ce=fr(azm+e.1)
is the frequency Integrating over
in all
the observfrequencies
hB0o0lt(frzzom+ma1n)0n=kltoTow=1x
and using the change of variables we have an analogue of the Stefan-
P
=
2k4 h3c2(z
T4
+ 1)
Z1 0
x3 ex
1
dx
=
T
4=(z
+
1):
Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars195
Thus, as it is expected all the energy received decreases in (z + 1) times.
It should be noted that in the standard cosmology the attenuation of galaxy radiation caused by the redshift due to the Doppler e ect is taken to be equal in (z + 1)2 times, i.e. for the Planck radiation spectrum F( T) d the received signal has power
F( T) d=(z + 1)2 = F( T) d0=(z + 1): This attenuation, as suggested, is due both to the decrease of the quantum energy and their number (or in another words the frequency band). It seems that in this way the attenuation is determined twice: rst in (z+1) times due to the decrease of the quantum energy (quantum approach), and then again in (z+1) times due to the decrease of the band (classical approach), we consider such an approach to be groundless.
So then, at the reception place we have the following illumination from the considered volume element
dE = r2 n m (R)
we obtain the required expression for the background radiation temperature
 r2 nm 2hc203
Zzm 0
exp(z[h+01()z3+ (R1))=ddkRzTd] z
1
=
= c2[exp(h2h0=03kTb) 1]: (5)
The dimension of (5)is equal to W=cm2Hz sr. In
dimensionless in meters, we
form have
designating
0
=
c=0
,
where
0
is
 r2 nm
Zzm 0
exp(zh+c(z1)+3 1()R=k) dTdRz0dz
1
=
=

exp

hc k0Tb

1
1:
(6)
Denoting the left part as x we have for the background temperature
F [0 (z + 1); T ]
d0 dR; W=cm2sr; (2)
where 1)=kT
F
)
[10](Wz +=cm1)2;sTr]H=z
.2hTh03e(zfu+ll1i)ll3u=mc2i[neaxtpio(hni0n(zth+e
antenna aperture from all the galaxies in the solid angle
of the radiotelescope antenna is
Z1
E =  r2 nm d0
F [0(z + 1); T ] (R) dR: (3)
Tb(0)
=
k0
hc
ln[(x +
1)=x]
:
(7)
Expression (6) is simpli ed if, rstly, in the upp1gta)re=okruinin0ngkdtTtethgeerma t0pri:oes1trnattelu0irm:rm2eitaoTnfwbdteh,hesche=eacxvo0penkodtTnlhbyee,ntacitoa0ntl:1hdfueitndi0coe:tns2iio.rnheAdce(sxbzpimatacink+s--, sion we obtain from (6)
0
0
,
If (R) is such then the upper
that at some limit of the
Rint=egRraml awxi;ll
b e(Rdem anxi)te=
Tb
=
r2
nm
T
Zzm
(z
0
+
1)2 (z)
dR dz
dz:
(8)
and equal to distance R
iRtsmraaxd.iaAtisoint
is obvious, at at frequency
the

given galaxy will come in
the reception if the galaxy
band at redshift
the is z
frequency . In this
wa0y=to=in(zte+gra1t)e,
expression (3) it is necessary to use the functional rela-
tion between R and  or, ultimately, between R and
z.
for
Then, substituting dR (z) we obtain nally
in
(3)
for
dR
=
dR dz
dz
,
(R)
Afisutlf uNzllml oeldwl=efdfoo3rfr0o0irn00tea0gnr3datc2iTmn:5g=acimnt6di.st1nh0ee3cKesesscaothrnyed
rst condition is one at Tb  3K to know R(z) in
the interval 0  z  1. For this purpose one can use
ieRqnsut=aatshbaRelris0s hpirenszdtthvaeeepxrppiin reoterexidmrivmbeaynal ttt0aiholelnyoztbfhoserer5Hvzau(tSbieobgnlea0sl:lo01af2w9g9ao3Rlr,aTxt=riheoesiRtasl0ankwidzj
E = r2 nm d0
1994). Then, for calculation it is necessary to determine the attenuation function (R). This can be done
Zzm
F [0(z
0
+ 1); T] (z)
dR dz
dz;
W=cm2sr:
(4)
In our case it is expedient to characterize the radia-
tion as a
E by the e ective temperature temperature of the blackbody
Trabdwiahtiicohniswditeh ntehde
same spectral power. Comparing (4) with the radiation
of a black cavity
E = 2h03
d0=c2[exp(h0=kTb) 1]; W=cm2sr;
on the basis of di erent physical grounds. At rst we
suggest the simplest ones, namely, that beginning from
srboeygmitoehnedsiscRteann>trcaeRlRmpmairsttshcoeomfrapgdlaeilataetxiloyiensscflrryoeiemnngesdooun(roctrehsaebopusoatrtfbhreodmo)f
wave propagation. This takes place when projections
of all central parts of galaxies lying in the sight cone
onfumlenbgetrhofRgmalaaxrieesminercgoinnge
a
nduptatkoindgistaarneace
RR2mis
. The equal
to N = nR3
=3. The total projection area of their cen-
tral parts of diameter 1 kPc is S = 0:25n
R3l2. This
196
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
area covers the part of the cross-section area of cone
R2. Hence, only a part of radiation will pass through the cross-section (R) = 1 0:25Rnl2. The channel will fbt uh(enzencf)ut=il olyn(1Rcdl)oopes=eszdn=1zowmthd.eRenHp=ee Rrnemd=toh0oner,atihat.tetee.nwRuaatav=teRiloemnRng(0=tophrz1stc=hrw0ae:tee2nt5hainnaklgve2)es, place practically for the optical radiation forming the observed background. Let us take for the calculation l = 6 kPc; n = 2, then Rm ' 50000 MPc; zm ' 6 103.
In the given estimation the galaxies and the stars inside the galaxies are regarded immovable relative the given spherical coordinate system with a centre at the observer. In reality there exist proper motions of the galaxies as well as the stars inside them. It is obvious that the account of these motions does not change the result obtained. Indeed, in a suciently large volume, say ' 103MPc, containing several thousand galaxies the directions of motions are distributed isotropically and the velocity values are distributed according to the normal law with the rms velocity  300km=s. So, the radiation of galaxies will have the frequency shift not more than = ' v=c ' 10 3: Owing to this fact the observed radiation temperature from each galaxy well di er from the average one not more than T=T  10 3. Due smallness of the e ect and its homogeneity when adding radiation of a large number of galaxies, the in uence of this chaotic velocities on the radiation frequency and temperature will be mutually compensated. The same can be said on the in uence of the velocity dispersion of the galaxy stars. Thus, the uniform and isotropic microwave background xes in a statistical sense the immovable coordinate system resting on all the galaxies of the visible part of the Universe.
2. JmtheiencerMroawelateavxgepablraaexscyskigornoufonrdsrtaadriation of
In this section we give quite a general expression for the star background suitable for di erent models of the Universe. We suggest space lling with the galaxies be uniform and isotropic and their mean luminosity and dimensions be invariant in time and space. The problem is to give a calculation taking into account a contribution of the stars of di erent spectral classes, i.e. with di erent photosphere temperatures and sizes. As it is known, more than 80 per cent of stars in galaxies are those of the main sequence and hence they will determine chie y the observed star background. For this stars the required parameters r and T are given through the star luminosity M , determining its spectral class, radius and photosphere temperature. Let us use the known formula for the relative stellar radius
r=r
lg
r=r
=
5000
T
0:2M
0:02;
(9)
where T is the photospheric temperature of the star
and M usually
gisivietns
pinhottaobglreaspahnicdvfaolruet.heThstearreslaotfiotnheMmTaiins
sequence it is approximated with a sucient accuracy by the function
T
=
26 103 0:37 M +
2:4:
(10)
Substituting (10) into (9) we have
r2 r 2
= 10
0:233M+1:05:
(11)
The luminosity distribution of the main sequence
stars '(M) has been known (see, for example Lang
1974). The luminosity function '(M) is given in the
table from
form M=
in4thteo inMter=va2l0Mthat12innveoalrveths espinectetrgaelr
value class-
es B A F G K M: The intervals of M values of these
spectral classes are equal respectively to (-4,-1), (0,+3),
(iz+a4ti,o+n6)P , (+'(7M,+)9)=,
(+10,+19). We have 1. As a result, the
used normalfull radiation
will be
 r 2 nm X 19 10 0;233M+1;05 '(M)
4
Zzm 0
expf(hzc+(z1+)3 1()z=)d0dRkz Tdgz
1=
=

exp
hc k0Tb
1
1:
(12)
Here T is de ned by (10). Function dR=dz is determined by accepted theoretical or experimental dependence R(z). Expression (12) does not depend explicitly on the accepted nature of the redshift. Its nature manietfhxeepstescrlioomsneeldnytatmhlormoduoegldheolfcootfhntechreesttUeannfdiuvanercrdtsieocnoRss(mzRo)(l=ozg)Ry. 0RFpo(zrz,)tfho=er cH 1z=(z + 1) and so on.
3. SrUatndairivaemtriosicenroinwaavestbataicckmgrooduenldof the
Winge cwointhsidtehretghaelastxaietiscims uondiefloorfmthaenUdnisivoetrrosep.icSpinacseca llelsestimated by contemporary observations. We also suggest the mean dimensions and luminosity in the same scales to be invariant in time and in the whole Metagalaxy space. It is essential that this model follows
Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars197
from observed mean (statistical) dependences of appar-
ent luminosity m(z) and angular dimensions (z) of
the galaxies and quasars which make possible to de-
tRerm=in6e00tphez
really existing dependence R(z) equal to Mpc in the redshift interval 0  z  5
(RTr=oiRts0kpijz1,9w9h5e).re
Taking into account in R0 = 600Mpc we have
(12),
that
A X 19 10 0:233M+1:05 '(M)
4
Zzm z 1=2(z + 1)3 (z)dz 0 expfhc(z + 1)=0kTg
1=
=

exp
hc k0Tb
1
1:
(13)
HerPeaTraims getiverenAbym(a1y0),haAve=o12nlyr 2andmmisRsi0b.le limits of
possible values since a strict mean value of nm, i.e.
a star number in a cubic Mpc, is unknown. Accord-
ing to the data on the population of the Local Group
containing three large galaxies with the star number
m = 1011 1012 and about two tens with the star num-
bnAemrlioesn1ei-n0o1nt1he. eaTnihndetnearavhtaalRlf10o0r=d1e62r0s0lMeAsspocna1ed0mca1in0ss,tibawklheeivc1ah0lu1me0 aoyf
be used in the background calculation. Then taking the
mhaevaTenh se(izzce)al=ocfu1tlahteiopcneznr=terzsamullt,pswaorhtfetrohefegzbamalacxkige5rs0o0ul0n'd
6 Kpc we 7000. tempera-
ture are given in Tables 1 and 2 in the waveband from
1cHliummulabitttbseoldeopflfaionrirttessathreoexflpalawaewrmiRmiRcer=no=tnRa.RlHT0gpzrhoezue, xntrtdrshiatnepgtsoaelwbcaloitetnehdhdianbosentbyheoeeefnonidrncttteahhrlee--
val 0  z  0:02. The comparison of two tables shows
there is not any signi cant di erence in the background
temperature dependence on wavelength. It can be seen
from the tables that at waves  > 1mm the background
is determined by the stars of spectral classes A F G , at
 < 1mm by those of classes B A and in the ultravio-
let by only those of class B. To check these results we
made as well the calculation of the background attenu-
ation in (z + 1)2 times due to the redshift. In this case
the dependencies remain practically unchanged, but the
ovesantleiu.me aotfeAbiosthanfoorrdtewrohliagwhesrRth=anRt0hpatzaas nadn
upper limit the Hubble
A most interesting and unexpected result of the the-
ory is the growth of the background temperature in the
submillimetre waveband. Any reasonable attempts to
eliminate this growth were failed. Finally, it has been
understood that the growth aries due to a sharp di er-
ence of the star background from the blackbody one
at submillimetre and shorter wavelengths. This has
Figure 1: A comparison of the star background spectrum
for the universe static model (solid 105) with the blackbody spectrum line)
line at at Tb
=zm2:=735K
103 7 (dotted
been shown in Fig. 1 where the star background spec-
trum is given in comparison with the blackbody one
at T = 2:7K . Theoretical and blackbody spectra at
T = 2:7K coincide in the Rayleigh-Jean's region of the
Planck's spectrum and sharply di er in the Wiens's re-
gion at  < 1mm. Here the star spectrum is practically
at and its spectral density exceeds the spectral density
of the Planck's spectrum by many orders at T = 2:7K
that causes the growth of the equivalent background
temperature. The reason of the spectra di erence is
the fact that the star background is added up basical-
ly from the Rayleigh-Jeans's parts of the star radiation
spectra which extend to optical frequencies at a high
star temperature. Really, the integral in (13)decreases
exponentially with the frequency and, hence, beginning
with some value of z it does not give any essentional
contribution in integral (13). One may conclude that
tsoahiforinesTstuhaalcktn(,ezdse+apc1l0ha)=casekpnwe0cahTtcretanu=lahcl1lcua(dspzespt+oeerrf1ms)lti=imankreisst0faoTotfrtaidhnnite degegtrirhveaneetntieoxvonapb.lrsueeAesrss--
vational waves has its actual upper limit of integration
over z related as it is obvious with the cuto of the
star Planck's spectrum in its Wiens's region. Thus, the
background radiation is basically made at the star ra-
diation in the Rayleigh-Jeans's region. Table III gives
btehraecRkvgarl=ouuensRdo0fprazzdeefifa,tcrioehnsapraoatnctsaeibrgilzieveescnhtihwee ayvsiezlfeeonrogftthghae. laIotcbtisiscerslveaeeynd-
from the table, that at centimeter and longer waves
 > (0:5 1)cmthe background spectrum intensity is
bounded by galaxy at   0:1 cm by
screening the cuto
at of
ztmhest(a5r
7) 103 and radiation in-
tensity in the Wiens's spectrum region. As a result,
198
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
the background radiation in the Wiens's region is deter-
mined by rather a thin layer of galaxies radiations in the
Rayleigh-Jeans's region of the spectrum. The reduction
in number of galaxies responsible for the background at
  1mm is an important factor which leads to an es-
sential increase of small-scale background uctuations
for shorter waves, that is con rmed by observations.
When calculating the star background we studied
how the background temperature is in uenced by an
increase of the star photosphere temperature at wave-
lengths longer than 1cm. To estimate this in uence we
have the only example, the Sun. Its brightness temper-
atiwanhtsau,emvrterehesetefleaocrtr0sai.olcnA0u2ltTa0stcu1i=mocmnhTnptm0oer+moamycp5eobderreue1ara0tteuph5irpasenr,ocowox0fni:hsm0cte1earaKrertnsee.lTdyAb,=etixitnlpasc0rhsre=teos(,asuzsaeled+sdsfbb1aaye)tr
remembered that the background temperature is de-
tawebarosmvtieankmeedennbatyisotnawnedoincviaatlilcauulelsvaatAilouneasanondfdtzhames.tlrimiOctintvvtaihlsueibeibloiaftsyiAszomisf
determined background
from a requirement temperature should
bthea2t.7a3tK. 0T=his3vcamluethoef
A is given in tables. It is clear, only those calculations
were used where A did not exceed the limits mentioned
above.
4. Aswtiatcrhobmtahpceakrgmirseooaunsnuodrferpmardeeidnatitcsitoinontsheoofrtyhe
Up to now extensive background measurements have been carried up to far IR close to optics. The star background theory may appear to be actual up to optical waves, so the comparison is not to be bound with the submillimetre waveband. Besides, the theory proposed explains naturally the observed small-scale space uctuations of the background intensity as well as a mysterious so far phenomenon of the equality of the microwave background intensity and the optical radiation of a mean galaxy including ours. These questions are considered in detail below.
4.1. The star background spectrum and observations
Its obvious, that the comparison of the theory with ob-
servations is of interest rst of all in the submillime-
tre waveband. The background measurements in this
wavelength region have already been in progress for a
quarter of a century. They have been started to con-
rm the blackbody character of radiation at this waves
followed from the Big Bang theory. rst investigations
aptenwdaevnetlelnagbtohrsator0ie<s
1mm of the
carried out by three indeUSA on the high-altitude
balloons and satellite gave contradictory results: some
Figure 2: Theoretical dependence of the star background
temperature on the wavelength for the static model of the
usunrievmeresnetadtaztam
= (5 7) (crosses)
103
as compared with the mea-
gcroetavsaelguoets Note, the
TmTbbe==asu(23r:7e:6mKe,5nt:th5se)Kgoitvh(isneerges
raefvteierwcoorfreBcltiitoenr 1t9o7d4e)-. a higher temperature
then 2:7K were and are being questioned since they
contradict the standard cosmology theory. However,
the data mentioned have last their meaning because of
uncertainty in the value of the observation wavelength
due to a wide band comparable with the mean frequen-
cy of reception.
At present there have been reliable results in the
work of Matsumoto (1988) at wavelengths 1.16, 0.7,
0.48, 0.137 and 0.1 mm the accuracy of which is not
worse than (3-5)%. According to the IRAS (infrared
astronomical satellite) program the background mea-
surements have been carried out at 0.1 mm and 0.6
mm, they have been presented in Matsomoto's pa-
per after correction. Most of these results are giv-
en in ux units W=cm2:sr:Hz with exception of da-
ta at 1.16, 0.7 and 0.48 mm for which there have
been the background brightness temperatures as well.
The values of the background temperatures for rest of
the waves have been calculated according to relation
Bm(ea)su=re2dhra03d=ica2t(ieoxnp
hux=kiTnb
1), where B() W=cm2srHz . A
| is test
the cal-
culation of the temperature for three above mentioned
waves have proved the correctness of the temperature
calculation by this relation for other uxes.
Recently the measurements of the cosmic microwave
background were carried out by satellite COBE (Cos-
mic Background Explorer) with a help of receiver FI-
RAS (Far-Infrared Absolute Spectrometer) in the wave-
length band 0.5-5 mm (Mather, et al 1994). The back-
ground temperature in this continuous band have been
found to be equal to Tb = 2:726 0:01K. The satellite
Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars199
COBE was also used according to the Program DIRBE
(Di uz Infra Red Background Experiment) to get up-
per limits of background values in the direction of the
south ecliptic pole at wavelengths 240, 143, 100 and 60
m (Kowada, et al. 1994). There have also been the
value of the background upper limit at  = 154m. We
have used as well the review of the background measure-
ments at radio wavelengths (Kogut, et al. 1988). Fi-
nally,to make the picture of the background spectrum
full we ventured to use data at 0:3 0:8m (Leinert,
et al. 1995; Lang 1974) and in the ultraviolet at 912
angstrom (Vikhlinin 1995). All this mentioned data
have been tabulated in Table IV in units of the spectral
ux density and brightness temperature. Fig. 2 gives
a comparison of these data with the theoretical expres-
sion of the background spectrum and Fig. 3 compares
them with the background brightness temperature de-
pendence on the wavelength. As it is seen from gures,
the theoretical dependencies are quite well con rmed
by the experimental data not only at IR but also in
optics and the ultraviolet. This is an absolutely sud-
den the
sruebsmultil.lSimometeredwivaevregbeanucendf.orWTebt(hi)nkcatnhisbemaseyenbeina
consequence of a systematic error of the measurements
which authors had been experiencing a quite natural
subconscious pressure of theoretical prejudices. How-
ever, we should note that this divergence is eliminated
either by an account of nonblackbodiness of the star
radiation in the Wien's region or by an account of in-
tergalactic absorption of optical waves or at last by a
small reduction in estimates of a relative number of
brightest stars in class B. The value 0:15% given in
literature and used by ours may be overestimated due
to the observational selection. Finally, it must always
be kept in mind that the background measurements at
wavelengths shorter than 0.5mm are aggravated by a
possible impact of the interplanetary and interstar dust
radiation. Some hypotheses given in the literature re-
port that the observed background at   0:1mm is
determined to a great extent by the dust at T ' 20K
and so on. The uncertainty of corrections of this radi-
ation explains naturally a large spread of the data on
uxes of the cosmic origin. However, despite this fact,
one can de nitely conclude that the experimental data
in a wide wave interval do not con rm the hypothesis of
the background relic origin and are in a good agreement
with the background star theory.
Recently the background measurements have been
made by the population of levels of the hyper ne struc-
ture at mm waves in carbon clouds with the redshifts
z = 1:776 and z = 2:9 being near quasars. In the rst
case the rst level of the carbon hyper ne structure
has has
bbeenenoubsteadineadnd(Stohnegateilma,peetraatlu.re19T9b4()1.:7T) h=is
13:5K result
ts formally 2:73(z + 1).
HthoewBevigerB, taongextphleaoinrythwehsiechexgpievreismTebn(tzs)w=e
cannot exclude possible energy pumping from a neigh-
Figure 3: Theoretical spectrum of the star background at
z(cmro=sse(5s) 7) 103 as compared with the measurement data
boring quasar (in the rst case quasar Q1331+1700), so these data were not included in Table IV.
In conclusion one cannot but note an extraodinary stability of the calculated background spectra to the aafolntrdethrai.ttsioIdtnesepvoeefnndthetneucnceeadlocnuoluatthtieothnwaaptvaterhlaeemngsepttheercstzrmuA(m;')(wMaans)d;nzosmot practically changed if we had used a simpli ed expression (6) for stars of classes FG.
4.2. A mysterious equality of the background energy density and the optical radiation energy of our Galaxy stars has a simple explanation
As it is seen from (2-4) the radiation received by
radiotelescopes in a suciently narrow band formed from the radiation of galaxies disposed
dat0diifs-
ferent distances R along the line of sight. Each galaxy
contributes therewith only at a frequency correspond-
ing to its radiation
distance, i.e. of the galaxy
em(iRtt)ed=at0o(tzhe+r
1). No other frequencies of
its spectrum is received by the radiotelescope tuned at
ftrioeqnusepneccytru0m.
If the galaxies have the Planck's radiaeach galaxy contribution is determined
by the Planck's function at frequency (R) and is equal
tsnoiugmnFab[lear(tRof)fr;egTqaudlaenx0ic]ey.sIfto0risiesaaalcsdhodsienedetenurpvfrafolr.momT(h2ei)qs-u(t4aa)lkteeh saeptcltatihvceee
obviously because the number of galaxies in each inter-
val R at the
gorboswetrhvserasdencRre2a
sedsRinanRd2thtiemirersadaniadt,iohnenencee,rgiys
proportional to n
dR, i.e. does not depend on dis-
tance but only on dR. In doing so we can choose dR in
such a way as to have only one galaxy in each interval.
200
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
It results that each galaxy in the line of sight would be
a lantern of a monochromatic optical radiation of dif-
ferent colors of the Planck's spectrum. However, from
the observer's point of view (he is tuned on frequency
n0ea)rthtehye
are one-color observer. As
radiators a result,
atthefrecqounternicbyutio0npolafcaedll
the will
galaxies in the radiation be equal to the sum of
raelclerivaeddiataitonfrseqautenalclyfre0-
quencies of the Planck's spectrum from one galaxy. It
follows immediately according to (2-6) that the back-
ground energy ux is simply equal to the integral over
frequency energy ux of the optical radiation of one
mean galaxy.
The equality of the blackground energy density and
the radiation density of the stars of our Galaxy was
discovered more than 15 years ago and was a serious
theoretical problem not being solved in the model of
the background relic origin. Contrary to this, this fact
follows naturally from the theory of the background
star origin in a boundness stationary and uniform over
all mean parameters Universe. Below we give the cor-
responding calculations for the volume density of the
star background energy.
Expression (5) gives the value of the observed radi-
a4 t=niciotnyanw duexionbstpetageircnatrttaihnlegdfoeovnllesoriwtyfir.negqMueuexnlptcriypeslysii0onngfrfoiotmrbtyzheerdovo0tlouaminnde-
density of the background energy

r2n
m
Z1 0
8hc303
d0
Zzm 0
(z + 1)3 (z) dR exp h0(z + 1)=kT
1=
=
Z1 0
8c033h
exp
d0 h0=kTb
1
=
4
c
Tb4:
(14)
AdraetdniTsaibttyi=on2bv:7o=Klumt0h:e2ed4reeingvsh=itctympao3rf.ttghNievoeswtsatrlhseetorfuaosduicaratGlicoaunllaavxtoeylu. tmAhese it is obvious we should take herewith in (14) z = 0 and the mean star density nm equal to m=0:5 l3, where lis a mean diameter of the Galaxy.

=
2r2 m
l2
Z1
0
c3(ex8phh003=kdT0
1) =
=

2r2 m
l2
 T 4  Tb4
4
c
Tb4
ethqeu'Favloair4tclyuteTo=ifb4nt6h=s0qe0uv0aboKrle=u,mb0lre:a=2cd4ke1een5tvss=kitmiPisec3sc,looTmfshetuh=tseo1tmuh0nei1ci0tra,opawTnpbadrvo=,exhib2eman:7cacKktee-, ground energy and the optical radiation of our Galaxy is explained by the identity of the nature of the background and the star optical radiation and as well by the
Figure 4: The measurement results of the small-scale
space uctuations of the background temperature T=T as a function of the radiotelescope antenna pattern width in minutes of arc: |the measurement of Parijskij; 2 | the measurements of Berlin. Solid line | the theoretical curve
fact that our Galaxy is close to the mean statistical one. Naturally, this coincidence could not be explained from the point of view of the background relic origin,that was specially noted in the review of Burbidge (1989).
4.3. Background small-scale anisotropy
The spatial variations of the background radiation intensity are determined by a change of x( ) of integral (6) as dependent on direction of the antenna. In this way according to (7)
Tb( )
=
hc=k0
ln

1
+
1
x

:
Usually x 1 >> nd a derivative
1 and of log x
Tibn=T(6b)( a)n=d
x=x. obtain
Then we x=x =
2 r=r + n=n + m=m, here r; n; m are dis-
persions of corresponding values. The value r is a mean
dimension, so r ' of stars in galaxies ,
0. as
itTihsekndoiswpner,siisonpomf
the .
number
To determine the dispersion of n it is necessary to
account the total number of galaxies in the antenna pat-
tern up to the Rtemnnadep eelnddionfg
oe nectiavcecodridstianngcteooTf avbisleibIiIliIt.yInRteh(e)ansight equal to
sterad there will be
Npa1van=Nrp di=an0=b:ln3=ep3s0Nn:n3n=R300:Ra(3:n33()3d3RR)
3m(3e.
()3)D
g
Tau.lef=arTTxothimoee=sniwnwphdieet(nrphee=nnddi=snenpn=N)ecn2re=s+=0ioo:(3nf3rRNma3en=N=(Ndmo)m)==
2
Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars201
Figure 5: Experimental dependence of T=T as a func- Figure 6: Spatial dependence of the value X =
tion of observation of wavelength
[( T=T)2 m 1]
on the wavelength (solid line) as com-
pared with the experimental data of TableIV (points)
and we have nally
T T
=
p1m p1
+
m=0:33 n R()3
:
(15)
The measurement results of background tempera-
ture uctuations have been given in the review of Par-
ijskij (1990). These results are shown in Fig. 4 in the
form of the dependence of lg T=T on lg
in the in-
terval 0 <
 2, containing 73 data points. The
measurement of T=T were carried out in the wave-
length of the
interval antenna
10 1  pattern
00:020
50

cpm
at

a di erent 30000:
width
All measurement results are within interval 10 5 
T=T  10 3. It is not possible to reveal any regular
behavior in the dependence of T=T on
over all data
given in Fig. 4 due to a strong spread of data composed
of measurement of di erent authors and measurement
procedures. However, we hope that the data of the
same authors for di erent
are most free of relative
errors. These data are those of Parijskij and Berlin.
According to the data of these authors in Fig. 4 we
have clear dependencies of T=T on
. Here as well
there has been at he theoretical dependence calculated
ffpooerrrimn0e=>nt2a1,lmdmmat=awho1fi0cP1h0aarasijnissdkisjeReaenn(dw)eBl=leral4gin0re. e1Ts0hw3uMitsh,ptcthheveaoelbxid--
served small-scale background anisotropy is explained
by discreteness of the background radiation sources, the
galaxy stars. Besides, the calculation presented pre-
dicts according to (15) and Table III the dependence of
T=T on the observation wave through the change of
the size of the galaxy e ective layer taking part in the
background formation. To reveal this dependence one
should exclude the in uence of
. For this purpose we
have sampled the measurement from the data of Fig.
4 in a suciently narrow band 0:8  lg
 1:2 and
then have plotted the dependence T=T on . Fig.
5 presents this dependence which con rms the prediction. The desired dependence was determined as well from all the data. One can obtain easily from (15) the dependence excluding the in uence of
, namely
X
"
=
T 2 T
1
m
#
=
0:33
m
n R3()
:
Here T=T and
are the corresponding experimental data from Fig. 4. Fig. 6 gives the experimental dependence of X on  in comparison with the th theoretical one. The fact of their proper coincidence is a strong argument in favor of the theory of the star background formation.
5. Sstthtaaenradmlatreidcrrnocaowtsiavmveeotlbhoagecoykrmgiersooduenldanindtihne
For general formula (12) will do to calculate the back-
ground in this case. A speci c point for the standard
cosmology models is a restriction of the integration lim-
it in time
o(1f 2th) eugpaltaoxizems.
<
In
10 owing to a limited existence the process of calculation for the
cfwdholRaohrsse=terthddehzeemcd=HfioosRt0dllaeoH1nlw=c=wie(ne-zRrghe+Hfdaosv1rhie)msi2ftttoharenteadlUaktetnihiotvehneegrRsetenh(zeerr)oaard=leituecixscH.par0lIene1sxzstpi=hor(inezss+sc(i1a1o2s)ne),
AH X 19 10 0:233M+1:05 '(M)
4
Z10 (z + 1) (z)dz 0 expfhc(z + 1)=0kTg
1=
202
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
=

exp
hc kTb0
1
1;
(16)
where AH
km=s Mpc
a=nd r( 2zn)
m=
c1H. 0
1
.
Let us take H0 = 75
Table V gives the calculation result at the mini-
mum value from where
of A for two values it is seen that the star
obfaczkmgro=un5d
and 10 temper-
ature exceeds 2:7K at submillimetre waves and makes
its noticeable part at millimetre waves. From that it
follows an unambiguous conclusion that the observed
microwave background is to be consisted of the sum of
star and relic contributions. In other words the relic
background has no place at millimetre and especially
submillimetre waves. Hence, we have a de nite incon-
sistency of the Big Bang theory to explain the observed
microwave background radiation.
From the given calculation it is clear that none of
the models with a hot origin can explain the microwave
background by the optical radiation of stars. In this
case the existence region of the galaxies form is get-
ting too small limited by the interval z  10. Here
we include the in ation model and the models based
on conformal metrics (Hoyle and Narlikar 1972, Troit-
skij 1987, Petit 1988). The models of a steady-state,
i.e. nonexpanding, nonlimited in space and time Uni-
verse are in a particular position. We have here the
model which explains the redshift by \quantum aging."
In this case, as it is known, the quantum energy is
supposed to have an exponential attenuation with dis-
tance, that background
gisivaelssoRex=plaRin0eldn(bzy+th1e)
. Here optical
observation radiation of
stars. In conclusion we have to note, that microwave
background distortions associated with the interaction
of relativistic electrons with photons etc. considered in
detail by Sel'dovich and Sunyaev (1992) are also valid
in the model of the background star origin.
6. Conclusion
All observatiounal imlications of the MBR star origin theory of the stationary nonlimited in space and time Universe are con rmed by all known experimental data. The theoretical background spectrum obtained is con rmed by experimental data in a wide band from decimdeemtroicnsttoraIRtesaandp,lapurosibbaleblmy,eecvheannitsomopotfitchael wbaacvkegs.roTuhnids formation resulting in a conclusion that MBR is not a perfect blackbody radiation and cannot be coupled to the matter at a earlier epoch. An additional factor othfetrMusBtRisetnheergeyxpdleannsaittyionanodf tahemoypstteicriaolursadeqiautaiolintyeno-f ergy density of stars in our Galaxy, as well as the cause of background small-scale anisotropy which predict value and dependence on the antenna pattern width and observation wavelength are con rmed by the measure-
ments. All this is a serious evidence against the idea of Big Bang and in favor of the steady-state Universe hypothesis.
References
[1] Yu.V. Baryshev. \Progress of Science and Technology," Gravitation and Cosmology, 4 (1992), (Moscow, in Russian).
[2] A.D. Bliter. IAU Symposium N63: \Conformation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data," 1974 (USA).
[3] G.R. Burbidge. Int. J. Theor. Phys., 28, 983 (1989). [4] A.G. Doroshkevich, I.D. Novikov. DAN USSR, 154,
809 (1964). [5] F. Hoyle and J.V. Narlicar. NNRAS, 155, 305 (1972). [6] M. Kawada, J.J. Bock, V.V. Hristov et al. Ap. J. 425,
L-89 (1994). [7] A. Kogut, M. Beksanelli, G. DeAmici et al. Ap.J. 325,
1 (1988). [8] K.R. Lang. Astophysical Formulae, New York (1974). [9] C.H. Leinert, P. Vassanen, K. Lehtenen. Astron. As-
troph. Sup. Ser.,112, 99 (1995). [10] J.C. Mather, E.S. Cheng, D.A. Cottengham. Ap. J.,
420, 439 (1994). [11] T. Matsumoto, H. Hayakawa, H. Matsyo et al. Ap. J.
329, 567 (1988). [12] G.C. McVittie. Phys. Rev. 128, 2871 (1962). [13] Yu.N.. Parijskij and D.V. Korol'kov. Progress of Sci-
ence and Technology. Astronomy, 31, 73 (1986). [14] Yu.N. Parijskij and R.A. Sunyaev. IAU Symposium
N63: \Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data," 1974 (USA). [15] J.P. Petit. Modern Physics Letters A. 3, 1527 (1988). [16] E. Segal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4798 (1993). [17] A. Songaila, L. Cowre, C. Hogan, M. Bugers. Nature, 368, 599 (1994). [18] A. Songaila et al. Nature, 371, 43 (1994). [19] V.S. Troitsky. Ap. Space Sci., 139, 389 (1987). [20] V.S. Troitsky. Ap. Space Sci., 201, 203 (1993). [21] V.S. Troitskij. Izvestiya Vuzov, Radio zika, 36, 857 (1993). [22] V.S. Troitskij. NIRFI Preprint, N400 (1994). [23] V.S. Troitskij. UFN, 65, 703 (1995). [24] A. Vikhlinin. Pis'ma v A. Zh., 21, 413 (1995). [25] Ya.B. Zel'dovich and I.D. Novikov. \Relativistic Astrophysics," Moscow, 1967 (in Russian). [26] Ya.B. Zel'dovich and R.A. Sunyaev. \Astrophysics and Cosmic Physics," ed Sunyaev R.A., Nauka, Moscow, 1982.
Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars203
Table I
The star A and z
background radiation in
m
.
Columns 2-6 are radiation. The
the rst
the static model of the relative contributions of line of the columns 2-6
utnhievesrtsaersatofRs=peRct0razl1c=2lasfsoersdBi AereFntGcoKmbMinianttioontsheofbpaackragmroeutnedrs is a relative number of the stars of the given class.
A = 0.11488E - 10 MAX Z= 7000.0
(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000
B/S
0.013%
A/S
1.40%
FG/S
7.47%
K/S
9.29%
M/S
81.82%
T back
0.986 0.014 0.000 0.000 0.000 3668.36
0.219 0.560 0.195 0.023 0.003 520.08
0.238 0.543 0.189 0.025 0.005 71.95
0.231 0.547 0.191 0.025 0.005 11.88
0.165 0.568 0.228 0.032 0.006 3.09
0.061 0.480 0.358 0.075 0.025 2.56
0.053 0.454 0.373 0.086 0.034 2.73
0.050 0.445 0.378 0.090 0.037 2.81
0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038 2.83
0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.84
0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.85
0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.85
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.85
A = 0.25633E -10 MAX Z = 5000.0
(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000
B/S
0.013%
A/S
1.40%
FG/S
7.47%
K/S
9.29%
M/S
81.82%
T back
0.986 0.014 0.000 0.000 0.000 3740.04
0.220 0.560 0.193 0.023 0.003 535.29
0.237 0.543 0.190 0.025 0.005 74.92
0.228 0.549 0.193 0.026 0.005 12.68
0.141 0.570 0.245 0.036 0.007 3.53
0.057 0.469 0.365 0.080 0.028 2.72
0.052 0.450 0.375 0.087 0.035 2.73
0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038 2.74
0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.038 2.74
0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.74
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.75
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.75
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.75
A=0.88421E - 10 MAX Z = 3000.0
(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000
B/S
0.013%
A/S
1.40%
FG/S
7.47%
K/S
9.29%
M/S
81.82%
T back
0.986 0.014 0.000 0.000 0.000 3857.52
0.222 0.561 0.191 0.023 0.003 560.66
0.235 0.544 0.191 0.025 0.005 80.00
0.220 0.551 0.197 0.026 0.005 14.13
0.108 0.558 0.281 0.044 0.010 4.31
0.054 0.458 0.371 0.084 0.032 2.89
0.051 0.447 0.377 0.089 0.037 2.73
0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038 2.67
0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.66
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.65
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.65
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.65
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 2.65
204
(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 100.000 (mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
The same as in Table I, but for the Hubble law R=RH * z.
A = 0.11362E - 11 MAX Z=3000.0
B/S
A/S
FG/S
K/S
M/S
0.013% 1.40% 7.47% 9.29% 81.82%
0.994 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.350 0.517 0.121 0.011 0.001
0.313 0.520 0.147 0.017 0.003
0.285 0.535 0.159 0.019 0.003
0.119 0.573 0.263 0.038 0.007
0.055 0.460 0.370 0.084 0.032
0.051 0.447 0.377 0.089 0.037
0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038
0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039
A = 0.25601E - 11 MAX 2=5000.0
B/S
A/S
FG/S
K/S
M/S
0.013% 1.40% 7.47% 9.29% 81.82%
0.994 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.351 0.516 0.120 0.011 0.001
0.315 0.519 0.146 0.017 0.003
0.296 0.529 0.154 0.018 0.003
0.166 0.582 0.218 0.029 0.005
0.058 0.472 0.364 0.079 0.028
0.052 0.451 0.375 0.087 0.035
0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038
0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038
0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039
T back
3381.34 488.63 71.29 12.82 4.09 2.86 2.73 2.68 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66
T back
3264.10 465.14 66.45 11.40 3.28 2.68 2.73 2.76 2.76 2.77 2.77 2.77 2.77
Table II
Table III
The dependence of the e ective distance of di erent spectral class on the observation wavelength.
cm0 10
T = 25 103 Z17e5 103
1
17.5 103
0.1
1750
0.01
175
0.001
17.5
0.0001
1.75
T = 10 103 Z70e 103 7.103 700 70 7 0.7
T = 6 103 Z42e 103 4.2 103 420 42 4.2 0.42
T = 4 103 Z28e 103 2.8 103 280 28 2.8 0.28
Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars205
Table IV
Experimental measurement data of the background radiation spectral density and its brightness temperature as dependent on wavelength. 1-16 - Kogut 1988, 17-18 - Meyer 1986, 19-24 - Matsumoto 1988, 25-36 - Mather 1994, 37-43 -
Kawada 1994, 44-46 - Leinert 1995, 47 - Lang 1974, 48 -Vikhlinin 1995.
No  [mm] 1 120.000 2 81.000 3 63.000 4 30.000 5 12.000 6 9.090 7 3.330 8 2.640 9 2.640 10 1.320 11 1.320 12 3.510 13 1.980 14 1.480 15 1.140 16 1.000 17 2.640 18 1.320 19 1.160 20 0.709 21 0.481 22 0.262 23 0.137 24 0.102
B() 10 24 W cm2 sr Hz 0.522 1.049 1.801 7.297 42.655 69.962 252.266 331.158 342.627 340.065 335.124 276.694 477.012 456.029 231.624 141.735 339.750 360.202 302.769 116.866 29.404 3.678 82.966 3.700
Tb [oK] No 2.780 25 2.580 26 2.700 27 2.610 28 2.780 29 2.810 30 2.600 31 2.700 32 2.740 33 2.760 34 2.750 35 2.800 36 2.950 37 2.920 38 2.650 39 2.550 40 2.730 41 2.800 42 2.790 43 2.956 44 3.179 45 4.125 46 8.650 47 8.740 48
 [mm] 350.000 125.000 80.000 70.000 40.000 10.000 5.000 4.000 3.000 2.000 1.000 0.500 0.240 0.154 0.134 0.130 0.100 0.095 0.060 0.0008 0.00035 0.0005 0.00065 0.00000912
B() 10 24 W cm2 sr Hz 0.060 0.467 1.105 1.465 4.254 59.173 169.739 226.599 306.290 382.538 204.305 8.321 5.600 1.330 5.800 4.800 3.300 5.000 4.800 0.650 0.135 0.250 0.450 0.0001
Tb [oK] 2.700 2.700 2.650 2.700 2.640 2.800 2.726 2.726 2.726 2.726 2.726 2.726 7.013 5.867 7.221 7.305 8.820 9.436 13.726 554.560 1126.722 826.945 662.294 3181.021
Table V
The star component of the background for the closed model of the universe in the standard cosmology.
A = 0.15000 E-11 MAX Z = 10.0
(mm) 0.001 0.010 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 30.000 100.000 500.000 1000.000
B/S
0.013%
A/S
FG/S
1.40% 7.47%
K/S
9.29%
M/S
81.82%
T back
0.121 0.579 0.260 0.035 0.005 469.81
0.057 0.466 0.366 0.081 0.030 54.08
0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038 5.98
0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 1.28
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.66
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.34
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.18
0.049 0.440 0.380 0.092 0.039 0.09
0.048 0.437 0.381 0.093 0.041 0.03
0.046 0.430 0.385 0.096 0.044 0.01
0.039 0.402 0.397 0.107 0.055 0.00
0.034 0.385 0.405 0.114 0.062 0.00
206
(mm) 0.001 0.010 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 30.000 100.000 500.000 1000.000 (mm) 0.001 0.010 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 30.000 100.000 500.000 1000.000
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin
A = 0.15000 E-12 MAX Z = 10.0
B/S
0.013%
A/S
1.40%
FG/S
7.47%
K/S
9.29%
M/S
81.82%
T back
0.121 0.579 0.260 0.035 0.005 437.20
0.057 0.466 0.366 0.081 0.030 49.80
0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038 5.46
0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 1.16
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.60
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.31
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.16
0.049 0.440 0.380 0.092 0.039 0.08
0.048 0.437 0.381 0.093 0.041 0.02
0.046 0.430 0.385 0.096 0.044 0.01
0.039 0.402 0.397 0.107 0.055 0.00
0.034 0.385 0.405 0.114 0.062 0.00
A = 0.15000 E - 12 MAX Z=5.0
B/S
0.013%
A/S 1.40%
FG/S
7.47%
K/S
9.29%
M/S
81.82%
T back
0.116 0.578 0.265 0.036 0.005 436.06
0.055 0.460 0.370 0.083 0.032 49.35
0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038 5.39
0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 1.15
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.59
0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.30
0.049 0.440 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.16
0.049 0.439 0.380 0.092 0.040 0.08
0.048 0.434 0.383 0.094 0.042 0.02
0.044 0.422 0.388 0.099 0.047 0.01
0.035 0.387 0.404 0.113 0.061 0.00
0.031 0.372 0.411 0.119 0.067 0.00
& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 207{224 Spacetime Substance,
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC
THE MEASURING OF ETHER-DRIFT VELOCITY AND
KINEMATIC ETHER VISCOSITY WITHIN OPTICAL
WAVES BAND
Yu.M. Galaev1
The Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics of NSA in Ukraine, 12 Ac. Proskury St., Kharkov, 61085 Ukraine
Received November 15, 2002
The experimental hypothesis veri cation of the ether existence in nature, i.e. the material medium, responsible fvoerloeclietcytraonmdatghneeteitchweravkeinsepmraotpiacgvaitsicoonsihtyashbaesebneepnerpforrompoesde.dTahned orpeatilcizaeldm. eTahsuerrinesgulmtsetohfosdysotfemthaetiecthmeeramsuorveemmeenntst do not contradict the original hypothesis statements and can be considered as experimental imagination con rmation of the ether existence in nature, as the material medium.
The experimental hypothesis veri cation of the ether existence in nature, i.e. material medium, responspiebrlfeorfmoredeleecatrrloiemr aingntehteicwwoarkvses[1p-r3o],pawgiathtiionnmhiallsimbeeteenr radio waves band, by the phase method. The results of the experiment [1-3] do not contradict the original hypothesis statements, based on the ether model of V.A. Atsukovsky [4-6]. In the model [4-6] the ether is introduced by the material medium composed of separate particles, that lls in the world space, has the properties of viscous and coercible gas, is the construction material for all material formations. The physical elds represent the ether various movement forms, i.e. the ether is the material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. The experimental model basis [4-6] was, rst of all, the positive results of the ether drift search published by D.C. Miller in 1922-1926 [7-9] and A.A. Michelson, F.G. Pease and F. Pearson in 1929 [10].
The experiment [7-9] is performed within the electromagnetic waves optical band, di ered by careful preparation, veri ed methods of the investigation conducting and statistically signi cant measurement restuoltths.e Tethheermiemasaugriendateitohnesradvraiifltapbaleraamt ethteartstmimisem, aastcshteadtionary medium. Orbital component of the ether drift velocity, stipulated by the Earth movement around the Sun with the velocity 30 km/sec, was not detected. Mheiilglehrt oofbt2a6i5nemd, atbhoavte tthhee estehaerlevderlif(tCvleevloelceintyd,aUt StAhe) has the value about 3 km/sec, and at the height of 1830 m (Mount Wilson observatory, USA) | about 10
1e-mail: galaev@ire.kharkov.ua; Ph.: +38 (0572) 27-30-52
km/sec. The apex coordinates the Solar system move-
ment were declination
deter+m6in5ed. :
direct ascension Such movement is
 17:5h, almost per-
pendicular to an ecliptic plain (coordinates of the North
Pole ecliptic:  18h ,   +66). Miller showed, that
the observed e ects can be explained, if to accept, that
the ether stream has a galactic (space) origin and the
velocity more than 200 km/sec. Almost perpendicu-
larly directional orbital component of the velocity is
lost on this background. Miller referred the velocity
decrease of the ether drift from 200 km/sec up to 10
km/sec to unknown reasons.
Some peculiarities of the experiment results [7-9]
and [10], are explained by the ether viscosity in the
works [4-6]. In this case the boundary layer, in which
the ether movement velocity (the ether drift) increas-
es with the height growth above the Earth's surface, is
formed at the relative movement of the solar System
and the ether near the Earth's surface.
In the works [1-3] it is shown, that the results of sys-
tematic experimental investigations within radio waves
band can be explained by the wave propagation phe-
nomenon in the moving medium of a space origin with
a vertical velocity gradient in this medium stream near
the Earth's surface. The gradient layer availability can
be explained by this medium viscosity, i.e. the feature
proper to material media, the media composed of sep-
amraaltegrpaadriteincltess.wTasheeqmuaelatnov8a.l6uemo/fstehce mm.eaTsuhreevdemloacixtiy-
comparison of the suspected ether drift, measured in
the experiments [1-3], [7-9] and [10], is performed in the
works [1-3]. The place distinctions of geographic lati-
tudes and their heights above the sea level are taken
208
Yu.M. Galaev
into account in these experiments conducting at comparison. It is obtained, that in the experiment [1-3] the ether drift velocity is within 6124 : : :8490 m/sec, that according to the value order coincide with the data of the works [7-9] and [10], which are within 6000 : : :10000 m/sec. The comparison result can be considered as mutual truthfulness con rmation of the experiments [1-3], [7-9] and [10].
The positive results of three experiments [1-3], [79], [10] give the basis to consider the e ects detected in these experiments, as medium movement developments, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. Such medium was called as the ether [11] at the times of Maxwell, Michelson and earlier. The conclusion was made in the works [1-3], that the measurement results within millimeter radio waves band can be considered as the experimental hypothesis con rmation of the material medium existence in nature such as the ether. Further discussions of the experiment results [1-3] have shown the expediency of additional experimental analysis of the ether drift problem in an optical wave band.
Experiments [7-9] and [10] are performed with optical interferometers manufactured according to the cruciform Michelson's schema [12,13]. The work of such interferometer based on the light passing in a forward direction and returning it to the observing point along the same path. The Michelson's interferometer sensitivity was low to the original ether drift e ects. The measured value D in such a device, i.e. visually observed bands o set of an interference pattern expressed in terms of a visible bandwidth, is proportional to velocity ratio quadrate of the ether drift W to the light velocity c, the optical length of the light beam l and is inversely proportional to the wave length of electromagnetic emission (light)  [12].
D = (l=) (W=c)2 :
(1)
We shall call the interval, which a beam passes in the interferometer measuring part, as the optical length of the light beam. The research methods and experiments in the investigations of the ether drift, in which the measured value is proportional (W=c)2 was called as the "methods and experiments of the second order". Accordingly the methods and experiments, in which the measured value is proportional to the rst ratio extent W=c are called as the methods and experiments of the rst order. The ratio is W/c  1 at the expected value in the experiments of Michelson, Miller W  30 km/sec. The methods of the second order are ine ective at this requirement. So at W  30 km/sec the method of the second order in 10000 (!) times succumbs on sensitivity to the method of the rst order. However at that time the methods of the rst order, suitable for the ether drift velocity measuring, were not known.
The expression (1) allows to estimate the diculties, with which the explorers of the ether drift confronted
in the rst attempts while observing the e ects of the second order. So in the widely known rst experiment
of Michelson 1881 [12], at the suspected velocity value
of the ether drift W  30 km/sec, with the interferometer having parameters:   6 10 7 m; l  2:4 m, it was expected to observe the value D  0:04 of the band. And it is in the requirements of considerable
band shivering of an interference pattern. In the work
[12] Michelson marked: "The band were very indistinct
and they were dicult for measuring in customary con-
ditions, the device was so sensitive, that even the steps
on the sidewalk tory caused the
icnomaphleutnedrbeadndmsevtearnsisfhrionmg!"th. eLoabtseerr,vain-
1887, Michelson, also in his world-known work [14], to-
gether with E.V.Morly, once again marked the essential
de ciencies of his rst experiment as for the ether drift
[12]: "In the rst experiment one of the basic considered
diculties consisted in the apparatus rotating without
the distorting depositing, the second | in its exclusive
sensitivity to vibrations. The last was so great, that
it was impossible to see interference bands, except short
intervals at the business-time in the city, even at 2 a.m.
At last, as it was marked earlier, the value, which should
be measured, i.e. the interference bands o set because
of something on the interval, smaller, than 1=20 of the
interval between them, is too small, to determine it,
moreover at laying inaccuracies of the experiment".
In Miller's interferometer, for sensitivity increase,
the optical path length in each of shoulders reached up
to 64 meters [7-9]. It was gained due to applying of
multiple re ection. The actual length of shoulders was
reduced up to 4 meters. In the experiment [10] the
optical length of the path reached 26 meters. In the
experiments [7-9] and [10] the interferometers laid on
rafts, placed in tanks with quicksilver, that allowed to
remove the in uence of exterior mechanical clutters.
The positive results of Miller's experiment by virtue
of their general physical signi cance attracted the physi-
cists' great attention at that time. In the monographs
[15] 150, devoted to the ether drift's problem and refer-
ring to 1921-1930, are mentioned that almost everyone
were concentrated on the discussion of Miller's results.
The possible in uencing of the dicult considered ex-
terior reasons (temperature, pressure, solar radiation,
air streams etc.) on the optical cruciform interferom-
eter, sensitive to them, which had considerable overall
dmimosetnwsiiodnesly[1i6n]tihnesMe iwlleorr'kss.exBpeesriidmeesnbtsy wvairstudeisocuf smseed-
thodical limitations being in the works [7-9] and [10],
their authors did not manage to show experimentally
correctly, that the movement, detected in their exper-
iments, can be explained by the Earth relative move-
ment and the medium of material origin, responsible
for electromagnetic waves propagation [1-3]. However
the most essential reason, which made Miller's con-
temporaries consider his experiments erratic, was that
in numerous consequent works, for example, such as
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
209
[17-20], Miller's results were not con rmed. In the experiments [17-20] so-called the \zero results" were obtained, i.e. the ether drift was not detected.
Thus, taking into consideration the works de ciencies [7-9], [10] and a major number of experiments with a zero result available, it is possible to understand the physicists' mistrust to the works [7-9], [10] at that time, the results of which pointed the necessity of the fundamental physical concept variations. The analytical review of the most signi cant experiments, performed with the purpose of the ether drift search, is explained in the works [1-3, 21].
In 1933 D.K. Miller, in his summary work [22], performed the comparative analysis of multiple unsuccessful attempts of his followers to detect the ether drift experimentally. He paid attention that in all such attempts, except the experiment [10], optical interferometers were placed in hermetic metallic chambers. The authors of these experiments tried to guard the devices from exposures with such chambers. In the experiment [10] it was placed into a fundamental building of the optical workshop at the Mount Wilson observatory for stabilizing the interferometer temperature schedule. The hermetic metallic chamber was not applied, and the ether drift was detected. Its velocity had the value W  6000 m/sec. Miller made the conclusion:
"Massive non-transparent shields available are undesirable while exploring the problem of ether capturing. The experiment should be made in such a way that there were no shields between free ether and light way in the interferometer".
Later, new opportunities for conducting experiments on the ether drift discovery have appeared also after the instruments occurrence based on completely diverse ideas (resonators, masers, Messbauer's e ect etc.). Such experiments were held [23-26]. And again the massive metallic chamber usage was the common instrumental error of these experiments. In the works [23,24,26] there were the metallic resonators, in the work [25] | a lead chamber, because it was necessary to use gamma radiation. The authors of these works, perhaps, didn't pay attention to Miller's conclusions of 1933 about the bulk shields inapplicability in the ether drift experiments. The phenomena physical interpretation of the essential ether drift velocity reduction at metallic shields available was given by V.A. Atsukovsky for the rst time, having explained major ether-dynamical metal resistance of a Fermi's surface available in them [6].
The purpose of the work is the experimental hypothesis test of the ether existence in nature within an optical electromagnetic waves band | material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. It is necessary to solve the following problems for reaching this purpose. To take into account the de ciencies that occurred in the experiments earlier conducted. To elaborate and apply an optical measuring method and
the metering device, which does not iterate the Michelson's schema, but being its analog in the sense of result interpretation. (Michelson's interferometer of the second order is a bit sensitive to the ether streams and too sensitive to exposures.) To execute systematic measurements in the epoch of the year corresponding to the epoch of the experiments implementation [1-3], [7-9], [10]. (The term "epoch" is borrowed from astronomy, in which the observation of di erent years performed in the months of the same name, refer to the observations of one epoch.) The results of systematic measurements should be compared to the results of the previous experiments. The positive result of the experiment can be considered as experimental hypothesis con rmation of the ether existence in nature as material medium. in tMheewaosurkrsin[4g-6m], ewtahsoadc.ceTptheedeatthemr amkoindgelt,hpereoxppoesreidment. The following e ects should be observed experimentally within the original hypothesis:
The anisotropy e ect | the velocity of electromagnetic waves propagation depends on radiation direction, that is stipulated by the relative movement of the solar System and the ether - the medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation.
The height e ect | the velocity of wave propagation depends on the height above the Earth's surface, that is stipulated by the Earth's surface interaction with the viscous ether stream - material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation.
The space e ect | the velocity of wave propagation changes its value with a period per one stellar day, that is stipulated by a space (galactic) origin of the ether drift | the medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. Thus the height (astronomical coordinate) of the Solar system movement apex will change its value with the period per one stellar day as well as for any star owing to the Earth's daily rotating. Therefore the velocity horizontal component of the ether drift and, hence, the velocity of electromagnetic wave propagation along the Earth's surface will change the values with the same period.
The hydroaerodynamic e ect | the velocity of electromagnetic waves propagation depends on movement parameters of viscous gas-like ether in directing systems (for example, in tubes), that is stipulated by solids interaction with the ether stream | material medium,responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. (As it is known, the law of uids and gases motions and their interaction with solids is learnt by hydroaerodynamics. This e ect, apparently, should be called as the etherdynamics e ect with reference to the ether dynamics. It can be seen, that "the height e ect" is referred to the etherdynamic e ect class. However in the work, by virtue of methodical reception distinction used for their discovery, the e ects are indicated as separate).
According to the investigation purpose, the measuring method should be sensitive to these e ects.
210
Yu.M. Galaev
The following model statements are used at measuring method development [4-6]: the ether is a material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation; the ether has properties of viscous gas; the metals have major etherdynamic resistance. The imagination of the hydroaerodynamic (etherdynamic) e ect existence is accepted as the initial position. The method of the rst order based on known regularities of viscous gas movement in tubes [27-28] has been proposed and realized within the optical electromagnetic waves band in the work for measuring of the ether drift velocity and ether kinematic viscosity.
The method essence is in the following. Let's place a tube part into a gas stream in such a way, that the direct tube axis will be perpendicular to the stream velocity vector. In this case both opened tube ends in relation to an exterior gas stream are in identical conditions. The gas pressure drop does not occur on the tube part, and the gas inside a tube will be immobile. Then we shall turn a tube in such a way, that the velocity vector of a gas stream will be directed along the tube axis. In this case the gas speedy stream will create a pressure drop on the tube ends, under action of which there is a gas stream in a tube soon. The stabilization time of a gas stream in a tube and this stream velocity are determined by the values of gas kinematic viscosity, the geometrical tube sizes and the velocity of an exterior gas stream [27-28]. Let's mark, that the development of constant gas stream in a tube lasts a terminating interval of time. The ether is a gas-like material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation athcceoerldeicntgrotmoatghneetaicccwepatveedvehlyopcoittyherseigsa.rdItinmg etoantsh,ethoabtserver is the sum of wave velocity vectors relative to the ether and the ether velocity with regard to the observer. In this case, if an optical interferometer is created, in wouhtiscihdea obfeaamtudbreiv(eisninthsiedeetahemreetxatlleirciotur bset,reaanmd)ananotdhteor turn the interferometer in the ether drift stream, it can be expected, that in such interferometer, during a stabilization time of the ether stream in a tube, the bands o set of the interference pattern regarding to the original position of these bands on the interferometer scale should be observed. Thus the value of bands o set will be proportional to the ether exterior stream velocity, and the stabilization time | the bands return time to the original position, will be de ned by the ether kinematic viscosity value. Hence, the proposed measuring method enables to meter the ether drift velocity values and the ether kinematic viscosity. The proposed measuring method is a method of the rst order, as it is not required to revert a light beam to the initial point (as, for example, in Michelson's interferometer).
Let's calculate the interferometer parameters. For the stream analysis of the gas-like ether we shall use the mathematical hydrodynamics apparatus, which is advanced in the works [27-28] at the problem solving,
connected with the stream of viscous incompressible uid. The use of such solutions for gas stream analysis is true, if the following requirement is performed
0:5Ma2 << 1;
(2)
wagvahesersraoegueMngdaavse=sltorcweiatpmya.csvAe1tloticshietayreMoqnauciarhet'msubenenutmseimbcteipro;lnem;wcpesantiaissttiahonne
(2), it is possible to neglect the gas pressure e ects and
consider the gas stream as the stream of incompressible
uid. On data of the experimental works [1-3], [7-9] and
[10], the ether drift velocity W near the Earth's sur-
face does not exceed the value W  104 m/sec. In the
work [6] the sound velocity in the ether is estimated by
tlihgehtvavleuloeccitsy. E1v0e2n1 receive, that Ma 
m/sec, that essentially exceeds the
if to 3:3
consider, that 10 5. Hence,
tchse=recq,uwireemsheanltl
(2) is performed, the stream of a gas-like ether can be
considered as a stream of viscous incompressible uid
and the use of the hydrodynamics corresponding math-
ematical apparatus is true for ether stream analysis.
Laminar and turbulent uid streams are distin-
guished in hydrodynamics. The laminar uid stream
exists, if the Reynolds number Re, drawn up for a
stream, 28]
does
not
exceed
some
extreme
value
Rec
[27-
Re < Rec:
(3)
The Reynolds number for a round cylindrical tube is de ned by the following expression
Re = 2apwpa 1;
(4)
where matic
aupidis
the interior viscosity; 
tube radius; v =  1 is kineis the dynamic viscosity;  is
the uid density. Depending on the exterior stream na-
ture and the requirements of uid in ux into a tube,
the
Re
values < 2:3
1R03ecthaere uwiidthsitnreaRmec
 2:3 103 : : :104. in a tube exists only
At as
laminar and does not depend on an extent of an exterior
stream turbulence. The following features are peculiar
for a steady laminar uid stream in a round cylindrical
tube. The particle movement pathways are rectilinear.
The maximal uid stream velocity along the tube axis and is equal to
wpmax
takes
place
wpmax = 0:25 pa2p 1lp 1;
(5)
where p is the pressure drop on a tube part with the length lp;
p = 0; 25 plpap 1wp2a;
(6)
eTm qpheueaiasnmlt hapuexii=dcmov6aee4llsRoctcireeeitnay1tmaotfveaalorlaocimutnyidnwatrpumrbeaegxirmeisseitswotaficn ecuemi,dowsrtherietcahhmains.
wpmax = 2wpa:
(7)
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
211
Figure 1: A tube in a gas stream
The stream velocity distribution on a tube section is called as Puazeyl's parabola and looks like
wp (r) = wpmax 1 r2ap 2 ;
(8)
where r is the coordinate along the tube radius.
The laminar stream transferring into a turbulent
one takes place not uently, but by jumps. At transfer-
ring through the extreme value of a Reynold's number
the tube resistance coecient increases by jump, and
then slowly reduces. The following features are peculiar
for a steady stream of viscous liquid in a round cylindri-
cal tube of turbulent stream. The pathways of particle
movement have scattered nature. The resistance coe-
cient of a round tube velocity distribution
iosneqauatul b ep
= 0:3164Re 0:25. section is almost
The uni-
form with their sharp reduction up to zero point in a
thin layer near the wall. The maximal velocity increase
above the mean order value is about 10-20 % [27-28]
wpmax  (1:1 : : :1:2) wpa:
(9)
It will be shown below, that in the experiment re-
qwueirsehmalelnbtes,raesstraicrtuelde,bRyeth>e Resetcim, tahteiorenfso,rpeeirnfotrhmeewdofrokr
the ether turbulent stream.
Let's consider the method operating principle. In
the Fig. 1 the part of a cylindrical round metallic tube
with the drift), is
length shown
lp
,
which
is
in
the
ether
stream
(ether
The ether stream is shown in the gure as slant-
ing thin lines with arrows, that indicate the direction
of its movement. The tube longitudinal axis is locat-
ed horizontally and along with the ether drift velocity
vector is in a vertical plain, which represents the gure
plain. The tube walls have major ether-dynamic resis-
tance and the ether stream acting from the tube sur-
face side area, the ether inside a tube does not move.
The ether velocity stream stipulated by the horizontal
vetehloecritsytrceoammpionnaenttuobfe,thweheicthhegrodersifwtitWhht,hecrmeaetaesn tvhee-
ltohceitryouwtpinag.
It can be spoken, that the metallic system for the ether stream. Let's
tube turn
is a
tube in a horizontal plain in such a way, that its lon-
gitudinal axis will take up a position perpendicular to
the plain of the Fig. 1 or, that is similar | perpen-
dicular to the velocity vector of the ether drift. In this
position both opened ends of a tube will be in identical
conditions regarding to the ether stream, the pressure
di erential p does not occur and according to (5) the
ether stream velocity in a tube is equal to a zero point.
Apotstithieonm. oTmheenthot0rizwoentsahlacllomtuprnonaenttuboef
into the initial the ether drift
veneldosc,ituyndWerh
will create a pressure drop operation of which the ether
p on the tube stream will be
developed in a tube. In the work [28] the problem about
setting into motion of viscous incompressible uid being
in a round cylindrical tube under operating of the sud-
denly appended constant pressure drop p is solved.
Let's reduce the formula of the velocity distribution of
uid stream in a tube

wp (r; t) = wpmax 1
r2 a2p
8
X 1 k=1
J0
k3
k
J1
rap
( k
1
)

exp
a2pk2t# ;
(10)
w0o;rhdeJerr0es;.tJTi1shteahr eertsBitmetsews;eol'sskumfiusmntchatenioednqssuianotfsioqtnuhaerroezoetbrsoraJca0kn(edtsk )erxs=t-
press steady (at t ! 1) laminar stream of uid and
correspond the mentioned above \Puazeyl's parabola"
(8). So at a turbulent uid stream, according to (9),
the velocity distribution on a tube section is almost uni-
form, we shall consider, that the uid stream velocity
is of
ethque arlouwnpda
on the tube at
whole tube a turbulent
section (the value uid stream should
b pe
uwsaeldl laatyetrh.eIvnaltuheisccaalcsueltahteioenxpwrpeas)sieoxnc(e1p0t)tahte
thin nearr = 0 will
be like
"
wp (t)  wpa 1
8 X 1 k 3J1 1 ( k)
k=1
exp  k2ap 2t :
(11)
The expression (11) describes the process of a uid
stream de ning in a round tube. It follows from (11),
tohf attheatextp!res1sionth(e11v)alsuheouisldwbpe(td)iv!idewdpain. toBoththe
parts value
of In
constant this case
uid the
tsitmreeamvarviealtoiocintyofin auidroustnrdeatmubdeimwepna -.
sionless velocity in a Fig. 2.
wp
(t)/wpa
will
be
like,
that
is
shown
In the gure the values of dimensionless velocity
wofpt(itm)/ewaprae agrievegnivoenn tohne aanbsocirsdsianaatxeiss.axAiss,itthies svhaoluwens
above, the requirement (2) is performed and the ether
stream can be described by the laws of thick liquid mo-
tions, then we shall speak about the ether stream fur-
ther, instead of uid. In the Fig. 2 we'll allocate the
212
Yu.M. Galaev
Figure
tube
2:
Variation
in
time
of
uid
movement
velocity
in
a
ivsnhetlaeolrlcvictayallolinftthaiemtueetbthe0e:rc:hs:attnrdeg,aedmsufrrrionemggimw0heuicophnttothhe0i.se9t5thiemwrepsatir.netWaemre-
val as the dynamic one. We shall call the ether stream
regime at t > Let's skip
atdliagshtthbeeasmteaadlyonsgtrtehaemturebgeimaxe.is.
It
can
be written down, that the phase of a light wave on a cut
with the length lp will vary on value j, which is equal.
' = 2 f lp V 1;
(12)
where f is the electromagnetic wave frequency; V is
the light velocity in a tube. According to the original
hypothesis the ether is a medium, responsible for elec-
tromagnetic waves propagation. This implies, that if in
avetluobcietywoitfhwthhicehlecnhgatnhgelps
there is in time,
the ether stream, the so the phase of a light
wave measured on the tube output, should change in
time according to variation in time of the ether stream
velocity wp (t). Then the expression (12) will be like
' (t) = 2 f lp [c wp (t)] 1 ;
(13)
where c is the light velocity in a xed ether, in vacuum.
In the expression (13) the sign "+" is used, when the
direction of the light propagation coincides with the
ether stream direction in a tube, and the sign "-" is
used, when these directions are opposite.
In the work the optical interferometer is applied for
measuring value ' (t). Rozhdestvensky's interferome-
ter schema is taken [29] as the basis, which is supple-
mented in such a way, that the light beam drove along
the empty metallic tube axis in one of the shoulders.
The interferometer schema and its basic clusters are
shown in the Fig. 3.
1 | illuminator; 2 | a metallic tube part; 3 |
ettrhyaeenfrssacphgaemrmeenant.tlTawmhiteihnbaaesa;smcMalc1eo;,uPMrs1e2,
P|2 m|irr oartspaareraslhleolwsnemoinis shown with thick lines
and arrows. The light beam in a tube pass along the
axis and is indicated with a broken line in the gure.
The tube length is lp  P1M1. The clusters P1, M1
Figure 3: The schema of an optical interferometer
aMTttPishhn1nhee2dM'emtma2Pa.rcine2orTgrn,mohllseMprieosd.pui2enliInra1ntetaie,denarrd,esvic2aoltmMalhpsasoep1srauioe,cRrnsaeMittotlehzeP2cdeha1edastMaaweenncsd1hiogtfvl=ttoebehhstynheeMsbetekbewr2tyetPhoo'wase2nmerp=eiaadsnnrrtdslaie1nmfrlrto,lofeaeiprMlnrlmlploy i1,amaunPnlegMse2gntolcte1=enoer,.
operating is reduced to the following. The light beam
with the wave length  is divided
which after are parallel
rwe itehctaiopnhfarsoemdiM e1reanncde
PM[2192]inatnodtpwaossbineagmPs2,
 = 4 l1 1 (cos i1 cos i2) :
(14)
eterTahdejuasntgmleesnti1s,o
it2haatretheestianbtleirsfheerdenacte
the interferompattern should
be observed. (The adjustment clusters are not shown
on the schema symbolically). In a tuned interferometer
the value is  = const. In the right part of the Fig. 3
the family of arrows means the stream direction of the
ether drift horizontal component velocity. This stream
veteelor cciltuystiseresqounalatohoWrizho.ntIaf ltrootaartreadngbeatchkegrionutnerdf,ersoumch-
instrument can be turned in the ether stream. The ro-
tation axis is perpendicular to the gure plains and is
indicated In the
aisntAerif.erometer
(Fig.
3)
the
band
position
of
an interference pattern regarding to the eyefragment
scale 3 is de ned by the phase di erence of the light
bPtoe1waMma1rsdP,s2wt.hheiIcnlhigathhrteepdFriositpgr.aibg3auttiteohdneodneitrthehceetriposanttrahelasomnPg1iMtshd2ePibr2eecaatmnedds
Pw1rMite2
,doMw1nPe2x.pIrnestshioisn
case, according to (13), we for the phase di erence
shall ' (t)
between the beams P1M2P2 and P1M1P2.
'
(t)
=
2
f

c
P1M2
wp (t)
+
M2P2 c

 P1 M1 c
+
M1P2 c Wh

+
;
(15)
where  is constant, the value of which is de ned by the expression (14). Let's simplify the expression (15).
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
213
For this purpose we shall introduce the identi cations
accepted earlier. Allowing, that the beam phase dif-
fteerrefenrcoemMet2ePr 2oraienndtaPti1oMn 1regdaoredsinngottodetpheenedthoenr
the instream
direction and is equal to zero point, the expression for
the value ' (t) will be like

' (t) = 2 f lp c
1 wp (t)
c
1
Wh

+
:
(16)
The rst member of the expression (16) describes
tsiepshttrrheeteeshabsremieoeabxnmvteeeianplrmoihocsarqiptsusyehtaarviresnaeearmaibavrtataviurcoeibknaloeettcPiosiw1tnyMtpo(MW2ta)d1h.Pce.opT2Lmehnedmetde'piussneenrcgneaoddolnuinddncetgenmhoteoehmnemetihtbnehexaeerr--
tor
fc
a1n=d,all1owwiengsh, tahllartecce2ive
Wh
wp
(t)
cwp (t)
cWh ,
'
(t)

2 lp

 wp
(t)
c
Wh  + :
(17)
It follows from the expression (17), that the di er-
ePssttn1rrcMeeeLaa1mmeinPt'2svtWheiclehsoo.cnppishtriyaodspeienor rattih'oteun(bati)nlettbeworepfteaw(rteod)emin aenebtrdeeerantmhtoieapsleePrtoah1ftMeirtnh2geePx2tienetarhinioetdrrs
steady regime, at t ! 1. According to the expression
(11) and Fig. ed, that owing
2towthpe(ts)mt!a1ll
v!aluwepoaf
it can be the ether
suspectdynamic
viscosity (celestial bodies move in the ether) the ether
steady stream velocity in a tube regarding to the small
length will not di er essentially from the ether exterior
stream velocity and it is possible to write down, that
wpops(itt)iot!n1in=thwe pwaorkWishd.et(eTrhmeinceodrreecxtpneersismoefnttahlilsysaunpd-
shown below.) In this case in the expression (17) the
fraction numerator in square brackets is equal to zero
point, and this expression will be
' (t)t!1  :
(18)
Hence, in the steady regime the interferometer op-
erating with a metallic tube does not di er from the
Rozhdestvensky's interferometer operating. In both in-
terferometers the bands position of an interference pat-
tern will be de ned by the original phase di erence .
The interferometer, with a metallic tube, in the steady
operating regime is not sensitive to the ether drift ve-
locity and can not detect the availability or absence of
the ether drift.
Let's consider a dynamic operating regime of the
interferometer. Let's unroll the interferometer (see Fig.
3) in the horizontal plain at 180. As the direction of
the light propagation has varied in relation to the ether
drift stream to the opposite one, the expression (17)
will be like
' (t)

2 lp

 Wh
wp c
(t)

+
:
(19)
According to the expression (11) and the Fig. 2, the iten0tee:rq:u:wtadliit.thyHawenpmc(eet),ta<ilnliWcahtduytbanekaemiss ipcselarncesegitiaimvteethttheoettihmineteevirnefetloreorcvmitay-l dadnii sdceortvehenertitaehtlheoebfratsnhtdereseaotmh esrientesvxidateeluraieorotufsbttrheeeawminpt(evtre)fl.eorceWinticeeessphWaatlh-l tern regarding to their position in the interferometer steady work regime as follows. Let's take a di erential of the expressions (19), (18) and divide both parts of the found expression into 2, we shall receive
' (t)
'
2
(t)t!1
=
lp 
 Wh
wp c
(t)

:
(20)
The expression left-hand part (20) is equal to the required interference pattern o set, which is expressed by the number of electromagnetic wave periods. With reference to the visually observed interference pattern the expression (20) describes the value variation in time of visible bands o set of this pattern regarding to their original position | D (t). The visible bandwidth value of an interference pattern can be the o set measurement unit. Taking into consideration, that the ether stream in a tube can have the direction opposite to the selected on the Fig. 3, generally it is possible to receive
D (t) =
lp  Wh 
wp c
(t)

:
(21)
In the expression (21) the sign "+" is used, when the light propagation direction coincides with the ether stream direction in the interferometer dynamic regime in a tube, and the sign "-" is used, when these directions are opposite. According to the expression (11) and the Fatphaitagtutt.bea2retnaitstahcaewcniepnpi(sntttss0at)nta=htnett00mt.0taTh=xehim0ebnaatnlhfdrveosamelotu he(se2eer1tqs)uotwrafelaeantmsohinavtleellrorfececirteeyinvciene,
D (t0) =
lp 
Wh c
;
(22)
and in the steady regime, when the ether velocity in a
tube is equal to garding to their
owripgi(nt)atl!p1ositioWnhis,
the bands o set reequal 0. The depen-
dence view D (t) can be obtained with the dependence
wdipv(idt)e/(w2p1a),iwnthoic(h22i)s,swheowshnailnl
the Fig. receive
2.
Really,
let's
D (t) D (t0)
=
1
wp (t)
Wh
:
(23)
=aosbtwDaApialn(lteo)dw/DiiWnng(hsttu0ht)chehesaue1pxwppaowryes,pistsi(isitoo)nsn/hwmo(pw2aa3nd.)eiTcnaahbnteohvdbeeee,Fptwiehgnra.idtt4etwnencpe(dtvo)itwe!wn1 In the expression (22) the measured value D is pro-
portional to the rst extent of the ether drift velocity ratio to the light velocity, that characterizes the reviewed
214
Yu.M. Galaev
Figure 4:
o set in a
dVyanraimatiiconinitnertfeimroemoefteinr toeprfeerraetninceg
preagtitmeren
bands
method as the rst order method. It follows from the
expression (22) and the Fig. 4, that if at the moment of
ttiomteheti0r
to measure the bands o set value D regarding original position on the interferometer eyefrag-
ment scale, it is possible to determine the ether drift
velocity horizontal component Wh which is equal to
Wh = D (t0) clp 1;
(24)
The direction of the interference pattern bands o -
set, regarding to their original position, will be de ned
by the ether exterior stream direction.
The data of the interferometer tube sizes are nec-
essary for the proposed measuring method realization.
The expression for the tube interior radius calcula-
tpiaorntsaopf
can the
be obtained as expression (11)
at
wp
the moment of (t)/wpa = 0:95,
twime sehatdll
follows. Let's divide both o(sneewtphaeanFdig,.all2o)wtihneg,rtahtaiot write down as
1 8 X 1 k 3J1 1 ( k) exp  k2ap 2td =
k=1
= 0:95:
(25)
If to be con ned by the estimation accuracy no
worse than 7 %, so the series in the expression (25) can
be exchanged by its rst member. Let's substitute in
the (25) the information
numerical values we shall give these
kvaalnudes:J1
J1 ( 1) = 0:5191), we shall receive
(
1
k=)
(for the 2:4048;
ap  1:37 (td)1=2 :
(26)
The expression (26) allows to calculate such the in-
terferometer design parameter as the tube radius Atimt cea,lwcuhliacthioins,rethqeuivraedlufeotrdimispsleelmecetnetdatcioomnionfgvfirsoumal
tahpe. (or
tool) readout of bands o set value D. The data of
the ether kinematic viscosity value v will be reviewed
bpreelosswio. nT(h2e4)t,uobfewlhenicghthwelpshcaalnl
be found receive
with
the
ex-
lp  Dmin (t0) cWhm1in;
(27)
winhteerrfeerDenmcein
p(ta0t)teirsn,bawnhdischo csaent
minimum value of an be digitized with the
selected value of
etyheefreatghmerendtriaftndhoscraizloe;ntWalhcmoimn pisontheentmvienliomciutmy,
which should be measured by the interferometer (the
interferometer sensitiveness).
The ether kinematic viscosity. The data of the
ether kinematic viscosity value v are necessary for the
measuring method realization. Let's estimate the value
v, relying on the following. In the work [5] the photon
formation mechanism is represented, as the oscillating
result of excited atom electronic shell in the ether and
the Karman's vortex track as hydromechanical photon
model is proposed. In other words the photon forma-
tion is stipulated by the ether stream turbulent regime
of the excited atom streamlining by the ether, oscillat-
ing in the ether. The turbulent pulsation propagation
in the ether is perceived by the observer as the light
emission. In the work [28] it is shown, that the exis-
tence of pulsation movement is possible in uid volume,
if the Reynold's number is not lower than some extreme
value equal to
Recr = wd 1;
(28)
where w is uid movement velocity; d is the charac-
teristic size of a streamlined body. In the work [28] it
is obtained, problem the
tvhaalutesRewcr,

d,
425. v are
With reference to our accordingly: the ether
movement velocity, atom diameter, the ether kinematic
viscosity. From the expression (28) we shall nd
  wdRecr1:
(29)
We shall call the obtained ether kinematic viscosity
value as the calculated ether kinematic viscosity value
vvcel.ocLiteyt'swcawlceulsahtaellthaeccveapltuethvec
. As o set
the ether velocity
stream of elec-
tronic atom shells in the immobile ether at a photon
emission. Let's consider, that this velocity does not ex-
ceed the light velocity w  c. The diameter of atoms,
as it is known, has the value order d  10 10 m. In
this case with the (29) we shall receive
c  7:06 10 5 m2sec 1:
(30)
The performed estimation has shown, that the ether kinematic viscosity calculated value corresponds to the work imaginations [6] about the ether as gas-like medium with real gas properties. So, the kinematic viscosity values of twelve gases, spread in nature, are within 7 10 6 m2sec 1 (carbon dioxide) up to 1:06 10 4 m2sec 1 (helium).
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
215
Figure 5: The interferometer structure
Optical interferometer. The calculated ether
kinematic viscosity value allows to calculate the inter-
ferometer parameters. With the expression (26) we
shall determine the posed to be equal
tube radius. 1 second, we
If the shall
rveacleuievet,d
is supthat at
the interferometer creation it is necessary to apply the
tdImfue/bttesoeermcwsuaiintpnhepdottahshpeeepttlihuynebtteehvriealoellrnuiggershtahtdDisluopmsuiwrnacipet=hwti0ht0:he0:05te5,hxepWmrwe.hsamsvWiieonnele=(sn2hg7a2t)lh0l.
 = 6:5 10 7 m, so the required tube length is equal
to lp  0:49 m.
The optical interferometer was manufactured for
conducting measurements. Schematic gure of the de-
vice (the top view) is shown in the Fig. 5.
In the Fig. 5 the identi cations of the basic clusters
are kept, which were introduced at viewing the inter-
ferometer schema (Fig. 3). 4,5 | the interferometer
adjustment clusters; 6,7 | racks for xing at-parallel
semi-transmitting laminas and mirrors; 8 | interfer-
ometer frame; 9 | power supply accumulators of the
illuminator; 10 | the illuminator switch; 11 | the eye-
fragment xing cluster; 12 | heat-insulating housing
are shown additionally. The frame 8 is manufactured
of a steel pro le with | like section. The wall thick-
ness is 0.007 m. The pro le height is 0.02 m. The frame
length is 0.7 m, the width is 0.1 m. The interferometer
clusters are xed on a at frame surface. The racks 6,
7 are manufactured of rectangular copper tubes with
interior section 0.01 m 0.023 m. The light beams
pass inside these tubes. The interval between beams is
Ppi(nIo1naMisn,tt2hsienaPnmt1dh,aeMnPpu21ofaPitnch2tteusitr eMaidst1eip,nqatuMreaar2llflee0r|lo.1sm2emmemtiier-.rrtorOtarhsnnesamrr aeicatkttisnin,psgtaianrllaaltlemhldee-.l
glasses with the thickness 0.007 m were used as semi-
transparent laminas). The laminas, mirrors and clus-
ters of their xing in the Fig. 5 are not shown symboli-
cally. Each of the clusters 4,5 allows to change the racks
position in two orthogonal related plains. The tube 2
is steel with the interior radius ap = 0:0105 m. The
tube length is xing on 5 are
lnpo=t
s0h:o4w8nmsy. mTbhoeliccalullsyt.erTs hoef
the tube semicon-
ductor laser with the wave length   6:5 10 7 m was
applied as the illuminator. The optical paths in the
interferometer are located in a horizontal plain. The
interferometer was located on a rotated material table,
which was manufactured of an organic glass with the
thickness 0.02 m. The heat-insulating gasket was put
between the frame and material table . The interfer-
ometer was closed by a common housing of six layers of
a soft heat-insulating material. The thickness of such
coating was about 0.025 m. In the Fig. 5 the housing
perimeter is shown. The housing background was the
box of rectangular section with the interior sizes: width
bTch=e
0:22 box
m, was
hmeiagnhutfahcctu=re0d:1o1f
ma ,calerndgbtoharldc
= 0:8 with
m. the
thickness 0.007 m. In the box the face wall on the
eyefragment part was absent. This opening was closed
with a common soft housing. The interferometer ro-
tating was ensured with the end thrust bearing of the
diameter 0.075 m. The bearing box is located between
the material table and support. The support is provid-
ed with the units for the interferometer installation in
a horizontal position.
The interferometer test. In the manufactured
interferometer the minimum bands o set of an interfer-
ence pattern, which could be visually digitized, meant
DmTinh=e d0e:v0i5c.e sti ness was tested by two methods. Ac-
cording to the rst method the instrument frame was
mounted on a horizontal surface. The interferometer for
one edge of a frame was hoisted in such a way, that the
frame lean angles to the surface plain reached  20.
In this position the interference patterns o set frame,
stipulated by elastic deformations of the instrument,
did not exceed 0.3 bands (D = 0:3). According to the
second method the instrument sti ness was tested in a
working position. The frame lean angles up to 10 were
created by the material table tilt. In this case the bands
noticeable drift was not observed. The stability of an
interference pattern to impulsive loads was tested. The
light shocks on the interferometer frame, material ta-
ble and support caused short-lived interference pattern
wince at the moments of such strikes. Thus the inter-
ference pattern was not destroyed. The bands saved an
original position after termination of impulsive loads.
The second stage of tests was performed on the ter-
rain selected for experimental investigations. In windy
weather the interference pattern was stable. The ob-
server moving in an immediate proximity from the
interferometer installation site, the movement of the
pedestrians and cars in 20 meters from the instrument
installation site did not cause the noticeable o set or
bands shivering. The short-lived bands shivering at cars
movement was marked on one of two selected points,
which was in seven meters from a ground road. Thus
the interference pattern was observed, and the bands
216
Yu.M. Galaev
did not change the position. (The transport movement
in this terrain is insigni cant | on the average 3-4
automobiles per a day.)
The interferometer heat tests were held in summer.
The device was mounted on the open site. The various
device orientation on an azimuth was set in cloudless
weather conditions. In a xed position the instrument
was heated by solar radiation. In these conditions with-
in 30 minutes the bands o set did not exceed the value
D = 0:35 ( 1/100 bands for a minute). In cloudy
weather and at night the interference pattern saved an
invariable position within 2-3 hours.
The measuring method sensitiveness to the ether
drift required e ects was tested at the test nal stage.
The method of interferometer application was the fol-
lowing. The instrument was mounted in a horizontal
position in such a way, that its direct axis coincided
with a meridian line, and the illuminator was turned to
the north. In such initial position, in the interferome-
ter steady work, the observer registered the bands orig-
inal position of an interference pattern regarding to the
eyefragment scale. The value D = 0 was given to the
bands original position. Then the observer changed the
position | took a seat at the illuminator. The inter-
ferometer turned in 180. The rotational displacement
was performed within three seconds. At rotational dis-
placement, as it was reviewed above, the ether stream in
a tube was interrupted. The interferometer transferred
into a dynamic operating regime, which is described by
the expression (11). In this interferometer position the
maximal value of bands o set, the bands release time
to their original position was registered. The interfer-
ometer transferred into a steady regime, and turned
into the initial position. At this stage of tests it was
established, that after the dynamic regime termination
the bands noticeable o set of an interference pattern
regarding to their original position was not observed,
i.e. bands expression
o( 21se)titvamlueeanDs,(tth)at!t 1theet0h.eAr sctcroeradmingvetlooctihtye
along the tube axis at t ! 1 di ered a bit from the
ether exterior stream velocity, that the value D was be-
hind the interferometer threshold. It can be explained
by small resistance of the interferometer tube to the
ether stream movement inside this tube. Let's consider
in this case, that
wp (t)t!1 = wpa  Wh:
(31)
This experimental result was used above at the pro-
portion deduction (18).
At procedure implementation, described above, it
was marked, that at the whole time course of value D
variations corresponded to variations, which are shown
in the Fig. 4 that did not contradict the original imag-
inations about the interferometer work. The measured
duration of a dynamic regime meant The values ambiguity td is stipulated,
t drst
10 : : : of all,
13sec. by the
Figure 6: Observed variation in time of the interference
pinagttreergnimbeands o set in the interferometer dynamic operat-
diculties, connected with small values visual readout
of the value D, slowly changing, at the dynamic regime
eDnd(t,)i,.ec.reaattetd!onttdh.eIdnatthaevFisiuga.l
6 the dependence view observations, is shown.
However, as it can be seen in the Fig. 6, on the
original site by the extent about 1 second the depen-
dence time course D course qualitatively.
(t) di ered from After the device
an expected time rotation in 180,
atiphtaettehindei,tmiaaclocmporoedsniittnigoonft,otii.m(e2.e2)tD0a,(ntdt0h)et=hbea0Fnidigns.stset4ai,ldl tohocfecauvnpatilieucde-
Dwi(tth0i)n There
wt=heeremtisamuxpe.ptomSsiitnioce1nsstehocfercemearcothameindenmttheetc0hm,aantxhiciemalvasaltlvrueaeslsueDes.
itnio nueinnci1n8g0atotrhoethinetrerrfeearsoomnse,tecrobnrnaekcitnedg,affoterreixtasmroptlae-,
with air movement inside a heat-insulating housing. In
this connection di erent methods of the interferome-
ter starting into movement and its braking were test-
ed. The tests have shown, that the observed feature
of the interferometer work could not be explained by
the suppositions made. The systematic round-the-clock
tests have shown the following. The daily variations of
the value D corresponded the measured ones in the experiment [1-3] to the ether drift velocity variations
within a day. (In the experiment [1-3] round-the-clock
measurements were carried out continuously during 13
months, since August 1998 till August 1999. The part
of this experiment results is published in the works [1-
3]. The measurement results within radio waves band
hetahveer sdhroiwftn,hothriaztontthaelrecoims paornaetnhterveslmocailtlyvadluureinogf tthhee
part of a day. The same e ects were marked at the
optical interferometer test in the work. The experi-
ence has shown, that at a separate day, on of time at the interferometer rotation on
1s8u0ch
periods the no-
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
217
ticeable bands o set of an interference pattern was not observed. Hence, the detected features in dependence
D (t) (Fig. 6) could not be caused by the interferome-
ter mechanical strains or air movements inside the in-
terferometer heat-insulating housing, and are stipulat-
ed by the exterior reasons. Such time periods, during
wthheicinhteDrfe(trmom) ete0r
were used starting in
for improvement ways of rotation and its stopping.
These ways were used then as standard procedures at systematic measurement conducting.
Analysis of the interferometer test results.
The detected regularity in the observed bands o set has required its physical interpretation. The possible in uencing analysis of the interferometer structural elements on the ether streams has shown, that the ob-
served dependence features D (t) can be qualitatively and quantitatively described within the following sup-
position. Let allow, that an exterior heat-insulating dielectric housing of the interferometer (the point 12 in the Fig. 5) forms the additional directing system for the
ether stream drift, besides a metallic tube. In this case
the exterior in relation to a metallic tube of the ether
stream is the ether movement in a dielectric housing.
If to consider the interferometer housing as the routing
system, it is necessary to consider, that, since the mo-
mpreonctests0
in it, as well as in a of the ether stream
metallic de ning
tube, the dynamic will be developed.
It gives the basis to write down the expression (21) as
follows
D (t) =
lp 
 Wc
(t)
c
wp
(t) ;
(32)
wltohhceietrvyeariWniatctii(omtn)eoiifsntththheeeevtianhrteierartfsietorrnoemaomefttevhreelhoeoctiuthsyeinrigns;ttrwiemapme(ti)nveias-
metallic tube.
The housing basis was a cardboard box of rectangu-
lar section. Let's consider a problem about setting the
ether into motion, resting in a rectangular tube. For
this purpose let's use the comparative method, spread
in hydrodynamics, of uid stream in a tube of a com-
pound pro le with uid stream in the tube of round
section, "equivalent" on resistance, at which so-called
"hydraulic" radius
normal section cepted [27] for
tGhips
atho
equal to an the section
radius
area ratio perimeter
of a tube Np is ac-
ah = GpNp 1:
(33)
Such a way enables to use the mathematical appa-
ratus developed at stream analysis in round tubes. As
before we shall be limited to estimations, performed for
the ether turbulent stream. In this case the dependence
Wthce
(t) can be calculated with the expression similar to expression (11) in which as the round tube radius
atupbweeashhall use the "hydraulic" radius of a rectangular
"
Wc (t)  wpac 1
8 X 1 k 3J1 1 ( k)
k=1
exp  k2ah 2t ;
(34)
where bulent
wstpraecamis
a mean velocity of the ether steady turin the interferometer dielectric housing.
As before, at considering the expression (17), and tak-
ing into account the interferometer test results (31), it is
possible to consider, essentially from the and it is possible to
that the value ether exterior write down
swtrpeaacmdoveesloncoittydiW ehr
Wc (t)t!1 = wpac  Wh:
(35)
terioLreto'svecraallcludlaimteetnhseiovnasluweeraeh
. Above, given at
the the
housing ininterferom-
ehatncedr=FNsrt0orp:mu1,1cwtthumiterhe.etTxdhpehesrece(nrs3i,s3piho)tainwovne(in:2sg6hw)adiildetlttrehiesrcmpbeciiovns=eesdiba0lht:eh2=2etov0ma:s0el,u3ehe,6es7tihgGmhaptt.
twtrhhaideellivudbasuelruodafeet titohndneewdionibfltlyetbrhtfeheeerdionetmu tebneretefedeorrfobhlmyaoruetghtseeienrrvgrdaayaldunhieuasmo.fiAc"hsryeadghrima>uelaictp"d,
td  0:53a2h 1:
(36)
From the expression (36) it follows, that, having the
measured kinematic
vvailsuceossittdy, viat liusepossible
to
determine
the
ether
  0:53a2htd 1:
(37)
The kinematic viscosity value, determined in such
a way, we shall call as the ether kinematic viscosity
masehce,a=swu0er:e0sd3h6av7lallmureecaevnicvd.eLtheet'ms seuabssutrietdutveailnuteo
(37) td =
the (10
values : : :13)
e  (5:5 : : :7:1) 10 5 m2sec 1:
(38)
The kinematic viscosity as the function mean value sec is equal to
vm=eafn(vtda)luwe ivtheain,
calculated (10 : : :13)
ea = 6:24 10 5 m2sec 1:
(39)
Comparing (30), (38) and (39) we shall mark, that on the value order the ether kinematic viscosity values, calcTulhaeteodppaonrdtumneitaysuorfedth,ecopirnocbidleemvcsoluvtieon avbeaou. t the ether viscosity measuring is of particular interest, as the experimental data about the ether viscosity and the ether viscosity measuring methods miss in literature till nowadays.
218
Yu.M. Galaev
Figure 7: Variation in time of the interference pattern
bands o set (calculation)
Let's write down the expression for the value D (t). For this purpose we shall substitute the expressions (11) ainngdly(3a4n)di,na(l3lo2w) finorgtthheevparloupesorwtipo(nts) (a3n1d),W(3c5()t,)waeccsohradl-l receive
D (t) 
8lpWh X 1
c k=1
k 3J1 1 (
k)
exp  k2ap 2t exp  k2ah 2t : (40)
In the Fig. 7 in a normalized view the dependence
calculation result D (t), performed with the expression
(40) is given. At calculations the terms number of a
svveairslicueoesssiktoyf=tihs4e,vitnchtee=rcfae7lrcouml1a0etteed5rmvda2elssuiegecnofp1 taharaenmdetehttheerreskfaionrleelomuwsaeitndigc:
a6:p5=100:0710m5. m; ah = 0:0367 m; lp = 0:48 m;  =
From the Fig. 7 it follows, that on time expira-
ttic0ioonopftetmrhaetinb0ge:g8ri2engnsiiemncg,e,wttihhmiecehboaifsntddhisgeioti nizsteeedtrffemrrooammxiemttheaerl
moment dynamvalue of
the interference pattern (value D) should be observed.
The anticipated duration of the interferometer dynamic
oexpperreastsiniognr(e4g0im) feormsaptetceirfsyintdg
 10:3 sec. Let's use the the observed value exper-
itmuteentinal(ly40t)mthe1mseeacs.uFreodr tvhailsuepuorfptohsee ewtheesrhaklilnseumbasttiic-
vtcmoisnctorsaid0ty:i9c,t3vteshaeec=.exH6p:e2enr4iceen,1c0tehre5esmcua2lltcsseu,clawt1iho,incwhereassruhelatslslhordewocnenivoinet
the Fig. 6.
The interferometer test results analysis, the ether
kinematic viscosity values, calculated and measured,
give the basis to consider, that the ether stream proper-
ties are close to the stream properties of known gases at
their interaction with solids | to pass aside obstacles
and go in directing systems. It can be suspected, that
solids (dielectrics, metals etc.) at interaction with the
ether stream render major ether-dynamic resistance. It
clari es the interferometer test results, that the tube
made of dielectric can execute the same directing sys-
tem role for the ether, as the tube made of metal. The
ether stream property, i.e. to pass aside obstacles, could
cause unsuccessful attempts to detect the ether drift
with the devices placed in metallic chambers [17-20,
23-26].
For value de nition of the ether drift horizontal
coo mseptomneenatsuvreeldocvitayluWe ohf
it is possible to an interference
use the pattern
bands at the
mexopmreesnsitonof(t4i0m)ewtemsh, awllhreenceDive(tm) = max. From the
Wh  D (tm) c (8lpX 1 k 3J1 1 ( k)
k=1
exp  k2ap 2tm exp  k2ah 2tm 1: (41)
Let's substitute in (41) the measured values of the
etohtfhetehrveakluiinneteemtrmfaetrio=cmve1itsecrsoescait,nydthvceeaaldc=eusliag6tn:i2o4npapr1aa0rma5emtmeerts2esrevca(tlhu1ee,
tmcear;smelpsthn=eumm0b:e4ea8rsuomfre;adsevra=ileuse)6::5oafpt1h=0e07e:0tmh1e0;r5
km=; a4h
= .
I0n:0t3h6i7s
drift horizontal
component velocity, will be de ned as follows
Wh  525D (tm) :
(42)
Let's calculate the minimal value of the ether drift
vuefalocctiutryedWihnmteinrf,erwohmicehtecra,ni.be.e
measured we shall
with the mandetermine the
instrument sensitiveness. In the part \the interferom-
eter test" which can
is marked, that the minimum be digitized with the selected
veayleuferaDgmmeinnt,
awnedsLhsecatal'lslerdeDectemeivrimne i=Wneh0m:t0hi5ne.
Then with the expression (42) = 26:25 m/sec. ether stream regime in the in-
tweirtfhertohmeeetxerprteusbsieosna(t4)Wwhe=shWalhl mcainlc.ulFaotre
this the
purpose minimal
vrcRctsahtoaaredesnlemuiiatueeibymtnseohvfaetweruptahrr=di8be=tr8utiR03efl6t:en4e0:ny2.v1tdn4e0orolA5oewl1dgccmni0cistm,o,iner5teiudsnhmiimasnWwtbg2phsheoReirtcscoeshRimbt1te2hilhmn6eeme:i2on>ero5netvlfhqyeoRmuesrir.ei/nrtcswehL.etmeeichttHeeth'tunshiebttnnerhteec(eeece3wrte,v)fhiieivtaersihertt--
ometer tubes.
The optical interferometer tests and tests results
analysis give the basis to consider, that the hydrody-
namic description of the interferometer operating prin-
ciple, reviewed above, is adequate to the imaginations
about viscous ether stream in tubes, and the manu-
factured interferometer is suitable for the ether drift
velocity and the ether kinematic viscosity measuring.
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
219
The measurement methods. The interferometer
was disposed in the country settlement at the height
( 190 m above sea level), in 13 km from Kharkov
northern suburb. The proximate height ( 200 m
above sea level) is located westward apart 1.7 km. Two
points were arranged for measurements. The distance
between them was about 15 m. On the point No 1
the interferometer was at the height 1.6 m above the
ground surface. On the point No 2 it was at the height
4.75 m. Two points available, which are located at dif-
ferent heights and are practically at the same point of
terrain, it is required for observation of the \height ef-
fect." The measurements on the points No 1 and No 2
were performed in the open air. On the point No 1 the
interferometer was in surrounding trees shadow and was
not exposed to direct solar radiation a ecting within a
light day. On the point No 2 the interferometer was
mounted in an umbrella shadow. In winter time the
interferometer was transferred to Kharkov. The point
No 3 ( 30 m above the ground surface or  130 m
above sea level) was arranged in the upper level facility
of a bricky house. On the point No 1 the measurements
were carried out in August 2001, on the point No 2 in
August, September, October and November 2001, on
the point No 3 in December 2001 and in January 2002.
The measurements were carried out cyclically. One
measuring cycle lasted 25-26 hours. 2-4 cycles were
performed within one month. Each cycle contained the
following parameters. The interferometer was mounted
on a selected point, so that its rotating plain was hor-
izontal. After installation the interferometer was kept
in new heating environment within one hour (the in-
strument was stored in the facility). The measurements
were carried out at each whole hour of stellar time. One
readout of the measured value was performed under the
following schema. The interferometer longitudinal axis
was mounted along a meridian, so that its illumina-
tor was turned to the north. The further procedures
did not di er from the interferometer operating pro-
cedures, which were applied at the nal stage of the
interferometer test. After the interferometer dynamic
regime termination the observer registered the maximal
bands bands
ore lseeatsevatliumeeDto(ttmhe)i,r
as the measured value. The original position was regis-
tered and metered. The interferometer returned to the
steady operating regime. The instrument turned to the
initial position. As a rule, 5-7 readouts were done dur-
ing one measuring time ( 10 minutes). The readout
mean value was accepted for the measured value D (S),
where S is the measuring stellar time.
The processing methods of the measurement
results. The measurement results processing included the following procedures: values calculations of the
ectohuerrsedorfiftthheoertizhoenrtdarlifctovmeploocniteyntwvitehloincitsyepWarhat;eastdeallialyr
day and the ether drift velocity daily course averaged
during the year epoch Wh (S); a daily course of the
ether drift velocity averaged for the whole time of the
mtioenaTsWuhrehemmfreeonamtsusiertersimemseneWatnhrev(sSaul)ult,esmweWaenr.e-sqinutarroedvuacleude
de ecas the
measured value tables D (S) ed with the expression (42)
. The were
bvraoluugeshtWtho,tchaelcsualmate-
table for each hour of stellar day. Such numbers con-
sequence obtained for separate stellar day, describes a
dailTyhceoumrseeanWvhal(uSe)s.of the ether drift velocity and the
vdaalyuewsithWthwe efroellocwalicnuglaktneodwfnoreexapcrheshsioounrs
of the [30]
stellar
Wh (S) =  1 X  Whj (S);
j=1
8
W
(S)
=
><

>:
1 X  j=1
Whj (S)
(43)
91=2
Wh (S)
2=
;
;(44)
where whole
m eiasstuhreemvaelnutessearmieos.unTthWe hco,no bdtaeninceedindtuerrivnaglsthoef
the measured values were calculated with the known
methods explained, for example, in the work [30]. The
calculations were performed with the estimation relia-
bility equal to 0.95.
The measurement results. The measurement se-
ries results, held since August 2001 till January 2002 are
presented in the work. 2322 readouts of the measured
values have been performed during this series. The dis-
tribution of readouts amount per months of the year is
shown in the table 1
According to the research problems, we shall con-
sider this work results along with the experiment re-
sults [1-3], [7-9], [10]. These four experiments have
been performed at various points of a globe with three
di erent measuring methods: an optical interferome-
ter of the rst order (Europe, Ukraine, 2001{2002 [this
work]); a radio interferometer of the rst order, (Eu-
rope, Ukraine, 1998{1999 [1-3]); optical interferometers
of the second order (Northern America, USA, 1925{
1926 [7-9], 1929 [10]). The measuring methods action,
which are applied in the above-mentioned experiments,
based on wave propagation regularities in moving medi-
um, responsible for these waves propagation, that al-
lows to treat the experiment results in the terms of the
ether drift velocity within the original hypothesis.
The development regularities of viscous medium
streams ( uids or gases) in directing systems are used
in the work measuring method. The measured value
is proportional to a velocity di erential of the ether
viscous streams in two tubes of di erent section with-
in the original hypothesis. This di erential value is
proportional to the ether drift velocity (the rst order
method).
In the experiment measuring method [1-3] the reg-
ularities of viscous medium streams near the surface
220
Yu.M. Galaev
Table 1: Distribution of readouts amount per months of the year Month of the year August September October November December January
2001 2001 2001 2001 2001 2002 Amount of readouts 792 462 288 312 240 228
Figure 8: Variation of ether drift velocity within a day in
August epoch
partition are used. The measured value is proportional to a vertical velocity gradient in the ether drift stream near the Earth's surface within the original hypothesis. This gradient value is proportional to the ether drift velocity (the rst order method).
In the experiments [7-9] and [10] Michelson's cruciform interferometers were applied. The measured value is proportional to a velocity di erential of wave propagation in orthogonal related directions in the ether drift stream within the original hypothesis. This di erential value is proportional to the ether drift velocity (the second order method).
In the Fig. 8 the experiment results referring to August are presented. On fragments of this gure are shown accordingly: in the Fig. 8a | this work results; in the Fig. 8b | the experiment results [1-3] (the gure is published for the rst time); in the Fig. 8c | the experiment results [7-9]. ing Tohneoertdhienratderiaftxevse.locTithieesstWelhlarintikmme/sSec.inarheopuersndis-
pending on abscissa axes. Each of the Fig. 8 frag-
ments illustrate the variation of the ether drift velocity
wariethpinresaenstteedllaorndlyaybyWthh(eSa)u. thTohrse
experiment of work [10]
results as as-
certaining of the velocity maximal value, measured by
them, in relation to the movement W  6 km/sec, that
has not allowed to show this experiment results in the
Fthieg.m8eaassutrheemdenatilydadteapeanvdereangciengWrhes(uSl)ts.
In the Fig. 8 were present-
ed with the thick lines, which are obtained in each of
the experiments during August epoch (mean results).
The separate observations (measurement results during
a separate day) are shown with thin lines. The dates of
separate observations are speci ed on fragments. The
separate observations on fragments of the Fig. 8a, Fig.
8b are selected from the performings, which had the
date, proximate to the date of separate observation of
the Fig. 8c fragment and which during the day had
no skips during the measuring. The date discrepancy
is stipulated also by the fact that the systematic mea-
surements in the work began on August 14, 2001, and
in the experiment [1-3] | on August 11, 1998.
The positive measurement results, given in the Fig. 8, illustrate the development of anisotropy e ect | the eimtheenrtds r[i7ft-9r]e,q[u1i0re] dthee eacnt.isoIntrtohpeyweo rekctanwdaisn dthisecoevxepreerdby the optical interferometer rotation, in the experiment [1-3] the opposing radio waves propagation was applied.
The similar nature of the ether drift velocity varia-
tion within a day in August epoch unite all three frag-
ments of the Fig. 8. The rst minimums in depen-
dencies results.
IWnhth(Se )waorrek
expressed (Fig. 8a)
clearly in and in the
all three mean experiment [1-
3] (Fig. 8b) temporary position of minimums is S  3
hours. In the experiment [7-9] (Fig. 8c) the temporary
position of the rst minimum is S  0:8 hour. (Such
discrepancy in the position of these minimums is about
2.2 hour, an explanation has not found yet.) The ether
drift velocity magni cation is observed during conse-
quent 2-3 hours. Further the plateau sites with rather
small variations of the ether drift velocity in time are
noticed on all fragments. The greatest duration of the
plateau site was observed in the experiment [1-3] (Fig.
8b), that can be explained by arranging peculiarities of
a radio-frequency spectral line on terrain. In this ex-
periment the radio-frequency spectral line is declined
from a meridian on 45 to northeast. The variations
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
221
of the ether drift apex azimuth (as well as any star az-
imuth) occur symmetrically to a meridian line within a
stellar day. If to take the apex coordinate values into
account (according to Miller:   65, a  17:5h [9]),
the ether drift azimuth in this part of a stellar day ac-
cepts the values, which lay in the northeast direction,
i.e. in the direction close to the direction of a radio-
frequency spectral line. In this case the angle between
the ether drift azimuth and radio frequency spectral
line direction has minimum values. Accordingly at the
interval of 12-16 hours the ether drift radial compo-
nent velocity (directed along a radio-frequency spectral
line) keeps rather high value, despite of the apex height
magni cation (astronomical coordinate). Such arrang-
ing peculiarities of the radio interferometer on terrain
can the
explain interval
tohf e12re-1la6tihvoeudrsepinencdoemnpceariinscorneawsiethWthh e(Ssa)maet
dependencies shown on two other fragments. In the
work (Fig.8a), according to the accepted measurement
methods, the optical interferometer was located along
a meridian. As the variations of the ether drift azimuth
within a stellar day occur symmetrically to the merid-
ian line, in this case the plateau site duration should
be less, than in the experiment [1-3] and less than in
the experiment [7-9] in which the ether drift azimuth
variation was considered by the corresponding rotation
of the interferometer.
It can be seen in the Fig. 8a (the mean result of
the work), that the sites with rather small values of
the ether drift velocity, extended in time, take place
within a day. Noticeable bands o set of an interference
pattern was not observed per a separate day on such
sites. In these cases the ether drift velocity was lower
tmh/asnect)h, ethianttewrfaesroumseedtefrorsetnhseitiinvteenrefsesro(mi.eet. er Wtehsts<,
26 the
purpose of which is given in the above mentioned part
"the interferometer test".
Systematic character of experimental investigations
of this work and the works [1-3], [7-9] has shown, that
dependencies measured in one and the same epoch of
tehtheeryedarriftWvehlo(Sci)ty,
have the variation
similar within a
character of the day. At the same
time dependencies epochs of the year
vdiie werWfrhom(S)ea, cmheoatshuerre,dtihnatdic aenrebnet
noticed, for example, by the experiment published re-
sults [7-9]. The reasons of such seasonal variations have
not been de ned yet. It can be suspected, that magne-
tosphere, at its considerable sizes and peculiar shape,
ionosphere, the known variations of their state can be
responsible for such dependence variations It can be seen in the Fig. 8, the ether
Wdrhift(Sv)e.loc-
ities, measured in each of the experiments, di er, that
can be stipulated by the arranging height di erences of
measuring systems above the Earth's surface: 1.6 m;
42 m; 1830 m (Fig. 8a, Fig. 8b, Fig. 8c accordingly).
The collection of such data illustrates the height e ect
development. In the work the ether drift velocity mea-
Figure 9: Dependence of the ether drift velocity on the
height above the Earth's surface, is this work and experiment [1-3]; 2 is the experiment [7-9]; is the experiment [10]
suring have been performed at the heights 1.6 m and 4.75 m (position No. 1 and No. 2) for height dependence discovery. In the table 2 the mean values of the ether drift maximal velocity are given, which are measured in the work and in the experiments [1-3], [7-8], [10]. In these four experiments the measurements are performed at ve di erent heights: 1.6m and 4.75 m in the work; 42 m in the experiment [1-3]; 265 m and 1830 m in the experiment [7-9] (Clevelend and the observatory of Mount Wilson accordingly). In the experiment [10] the measurements were carried out also on the observatory of Mount Wilson. However, in contrast with the experiment [7-9], which was carried out in a light wooden house, the experiment [10] is performed in a fundamental building of an optical workshop of the observatory. It can be supposed, that the ether stream braking by the house walls was the reason of the ether d[1r0if]tivnecloocmitpyasrmisoanllewrivtahluteh,emexeapseurrimedenint trheesuelxtp[e7r-i9m].ent
The table 2 gives the imagination about the ether drift velocity variation in height band above the Earth's surface from 1.6 m up to 1830 m. In the gure 9 this dependence view is presented in the logarithmic scale. On the abscissa and ordinates axes the logarithmic values of ratios W/W and Z/Z were pending accordingly, where: W is the ether drift velocity at the height Z ; the values W and Z are considered equal to 1 m/sec and 1 m accordingly.
222
Yu.M. Galaev
Table 2: Dependence of the ether drift velocity on the height above the Earth's surface
The ether drift velocity (m/sec)
Height above This work The experiment [13] The experiment [79] The experiment [10]
the Earth's surface 2001-2002 1998-1999
1925-1926
1929
(meters) Optics Radio waves band
Optics
Optics
1830
{
{
10000
6000
265
{
{
3000
{
42
{
1414
{
{
4.75
435
{
{
{
1.6
205
{
{
{
It can be seen from the Fig. 9, that di erent experiment results are near one straight line and in height band from 1.6 m up to 1830 m the ether drift velocity increases with the height growth above the Earth's surface. The boundary layer has considerable thickness, that can be the consequence of the ether stream and atmosphere interaction. These data do not contradict the imaginations of the model [4-6] about the viscous ether and its stream near the Earth's surface. From the table 2, Fig. 8a and the Fig. 9 it can be seen, that the ether drift velocity is rather small near the Earth's surface, that can explain the reason of \zervoalureesu3l0tsk"mo/fsemcawnaysetxapkeernimasentthael ewthoerkrsd,riinftwanhticichiptahteed velocity. In such experiments the metering device sensitiveness was obviously poor. With the expression (1) it can be calculated, that at the ether drift velocity 2a0re0-i4n0a0ppmli/csaebcl,ethfoermmeetahsoudrsemofetnhtes,saescoinndthoirsdcearsaelmsuocsht methods sensitiveness to the ether drift velocity is low in 6 orders (!) than the sensitiveness of the rst order methods.
The ether kinematic viscosity has been measured in the work. The measurement results are explained above in the part \Result analysis of the interferometer tests," that is stipulated by the peculiarities of the experiment implementation. The measured values of the ether kinematic viscosity are in the limits vevqeaauluael ov(re5da:e5=r:c:6o::i72n:41ci)d1e01s0w5i5tmhm2tsh2esceece1th,1et.rhakTtihnaeecmcmoaretdaicinnvgvisatcloousetihtiyes value calculated above vc  7:06 10 5 m2sec 1 .
Hence, the di erences between the dependencies
Wavhai(lSab)leacnadn
the ether drift be explained by
velocity measured values the measurement method
di erences of the work and the experiments [1-3], [7-9],
[10] and di erences between arranging heights of mea-
suring systems. The results of four experiments do not
contradict each other, that illustrate the reproduced
measurement nature of the ether drift e ects in various
experiments performed in di erent geographic condi-
tions with di erent measurement methods applying.
Figure 10: The mean daily course of the ether drift velocity
The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band
223
According to the original hypothesis, the ether drift
vvaellouceitwyithhotrhizeonptearilocdompeproonneentsteWllhar
should change day (the space
its ef-
fect). For revealing the ether drift velocity component
with such period, the results of systematic measure-
ments were subjected to statistical processing in stellar
time scale. The results of such processing are shown
in the Fig. 10. On the fragments of the Fig. 10 the
stellar time S in hours is suspended on the abscissa
asuxseps,entdheedeothnerthderioftrdvinelaotceitayxevsa.lueThWe hveirntickaml /hsaetcchis-
es indicate the con dence intervals. In the Fig. 10a
the mean daily course of the ether drift velocity with-
cinalcauslatetelldaracdcaoyrdWinhg
(S) is to the
given. This dependence is measurement results of the
work, which were performed during ve months of the
year, since September 2001 till January 2002. During
ve months the numerical value of stellar time shifts re-
garding to the solar time in 10 hours. Since September
till November the measurements were performed on the
point No2. In December and January | on the point
No3. The mean values are calculated with the expres-
sion (43). For comparison, in the Fig. 10b the mean
result is given, which was obtained in the experiment
[1-3] during year's ve months of the same name, since
September 1998 till January 1999 (Here, as contrast-
ed to the similar gure, given in the works [1-3], the
measured value is expressed in the ether drift velocity
values.) In the works [7-9], [10] such data miss, owing
to smaller on coverage of year's epochs of the measure-
ment statistics in these experiments.
Both fragments of the Fig. 10 as a whole have sim-
ilar nature of the ether drift velocity variation within
a day. The di erences in the curve shapes can be ex-
plained by viscous ether stream interaction with the
terrain relief elements, which in these di erent experi-
ments had the distinguished performances and features
of radio-frequency spectral line arranging on terrain in
the experiment [1-3]. On the fragment of the Fig. 10a
(this work), as contrasted to the result of the exper-
iment [1-3] (Fig. 10b), the ether drift velocities have
smaller values, that can be explained by the height
distinction of measuring points in these experiments.
The dependencies ly changed values
Wwihth(St)hheapveertihoedsfoerqmusaol ftpoeariosdteicllaalr-
day, that can be explained by a space (galactic) origin
of the ether drift. In the work, the observed bands o -
set direction of an interference pattern corresponded to
the ether drift northern direction at measurement im-
plementation. Hence, the results of the work do not
contradict the experiment results [1-3], [7-9], [10] and
imaginations of the works [4-6] about the northern posi-
tion of the ether drift apex, that demonstrate the repro-
duced result nature of the ether drift e ects measure-
ment in di erent experiments, performed with di erent
measuring methods application.
In the work we shall be con ned to qualitative comparison of the work results with the experiment data [1-3], [7-9], [10]. For conducting of quantitative comparative analysis it is necessary to specify the ether drift apex coordinate values on the celestial sphere, which for the rst time were determined in the experiment [7-9], to specify an analytical view of the ether drift velocity dependence on the height above the Earth's surface proposed in the works [1-3], to elaborate the calculation method of the terrain relief in uence on the ether streams forming near the Earth's surface, to determine probable in uencing of the Earth magnetosphere and ionosphere, that is the subject of separate investigations and goes out the frame of the work problems. Due to the reason this experiment results, the experiment [1-3] and the experiment [7-9] are given without any correctdiio ne,retnhtouexghpeirtismuesnetfsulinseqsusitaet otbhveioreussu.lt comparison of
Thus, in the work, the hypothesis experimental veri cation about the ether existence in nature, i.e. material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation, in the optical wave band has been performed. The estimation of the ether kinematic viscosity value has been performed. The rst order optical method for the ether drift velocity and the ether kinematic viscosity measuring has been proposed and realized. The method action is based on the development regularities of viscous liquid or gas streams in the directing systems. The signi cant measurement results have been obtained statistically. The development of the ether drift required e ects has been shown. The measured value of the ether kinematic viscosity on the value order has coincided with its calculated value. The velocity of optical wave propagation depends on the radiation direction and increases with height growth above the Earth's surface. The velocity of optical wave propagation changes its value with a period per one stellar day. The detected e ects can be explained by the following:
| optical wave propagation medium available regarding to the Earth's movement;
| optical wave propagation medium has the viscosity, i.e. the feature proper to material mediums composed of separate particles;
| the medium stream of optical wave propagation has got a space (galactic) origin.
The work results comparison to the experiment results, executed earlier in order of the hypothesis veri cation about the existence of such material medium as the ether in nature, has been performed. The comparison results have shown the reproduced nature of the ether drift e ect measurements in various experiments performed in di erent geographic requirements with di erent measurement methods application.
The work results can be considered as experimental hypothesis con rmation about the ether existence in nature, i.e. material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation.
224
Yu.M. Galaev
References
[1] Yu. M. Galaev. \Ether-drift e ects in the experiments on radio wave propagation." Radiophysics and electronics, 2000, Vol. 5, No.1, pp. 119{132. (in Ukraine).
[2] Yu. M. Galaev. \Ether-drift. Experiment in the band of radio wave." Zhukovsky: Petit, 2000, 44 pp. (in Russia).
[3] Yu. M. Galaev. \Etheral wind in experience of millimetric radiowaves propagation." Spacetime & Substance, 2001, Vol. 2, No. 5(10), pp. 211{225, http://www.spacetime.narod.ru/0010-pdf.zip.
[4]
W. Azjukowski. akten Wissens.,
\Dynamik Stuttgart,
1d9e7s4,ANthue.r2s.,"s.Id4e8e{n58d.es
ex-
[5] V.A. Atsukovsky. \The introduction into etherdynamics. Model imaginations of material and eld structures
on the basis of gas like ether." Moskow, MOIP physics
d(ienp.R, u1s9s8ia0),.Dep. in VINITI 12.06.80 No. 2760-80 DEP.
[6] V.A. Atsukovsky. \General ether-dynamics. Simulation of the matter structures and elds on the basis of tMhoesicdoewa,s1a9b9o0u,t28th0epgpa.s(-ilnikeRuestshiear).." Energoatomizdat,
[7] D.C. Miller. \Ether drift experiments at Mount Wilson solar observatory." Phys. Rev., 1922, Vol. 19, pp. 407{ 408.
[8] D.C. Miller. \Ether drift experiment at Mount Wilson." Proc. Nat. Acad. Amer., 1925, Vol. 11, pp. 306{ 314.
[9] D.C. Miller. \Signi cance of the ether-drift experiments of 1925 at Mount Wilson." Science., 1926, Vol. 68, No. 1635, pp. 433{443.
[10] A.A. Michelson, F.G. Pease, F. Pearson. \Repetition of the Michelson-Morley experiment." Journal of the
Optical Society of America and Review of Scienti c In-
struments., 1929, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 181{182.
[11] E.T. Whittaker. \A History of the Theories of Aether
and Electricity." Izhevsk: RIC Regular and random
dynamics, 2001, 512 pp. (in Russia). E.T. Whittaker. \A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity." Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, Edinburgh, 1953.
[12] A.A. Michelson. \The relative motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous ether." The American Journal of Science., 1881, III series, Vol. 22, No. 128, pp.120{129.
[13] G.G. Petrash, S.G. Rautian. \Michelson's Interferometer." In the book \Physical encyclopaedic vocabulary." The Soviet encyclopedia, Moskow, 1962, Vol. 2, pp. 202{203 (in Russia).
[14] A.A. Michelson, E.W. Morley. \The relative motion of the Earth and the luminiferous aether." The American Journal of Science. Third Series., 1887, Vol. 34, pp. 333{345; Philosophical journal., 1887, Vol. 24, pp. 449{ 463.
[15] W.I. Frankfurt, A.M. Frank. \Optics of moving media." Nauka, Moskow, 1972, 212 pp. (in Russia).
[16] S.I. Vavilov. \New searchs of \the ether drift"." Successes of physical sciences, 1926, Vol. 6, pp. 242{254 (in Russia).
[17] R.J. Kennedy. \A re nement of the Michelson-Morley experiment." Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. of USA., 1926, Vol. 12, pp. 621{629.
[18] K.K. Illingworth. \A repetition of the MichelsonMorley experiment using Kennedy's re nement." Physical Review., 1927, Vol. 30, pp. 692{696.
[19] E. Stahel. \Das Michelson-Experiment, ausgefurt im Freiballon." \Die Naturwissenschaften," Heft 41, 1926, B8, Nu. 10, S. 935{936.
[20] Joos G. Die Jenaer. \Widerholung des Mihelsonversuchs." Ann. Phys., 1930, B7, S. 385{407.
[21] \Ether-drift," Digest by Dr. in Sc. V.A. Atsukovsky. Energoatomizdat, Moskow, 1993, 289 pp. (in Russia).
[22] D.C. Miller. \The ether-drift experiment and the determination of the absolute motion of the Earth." Rev. Modern. Phys., 1933, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 203{242.
[23]
L. Essen. 1955, Vol.
\A new ether drift 175, pp. 793{794.
experiment."
Nature.,
[24] J.P. Cedarholm, G.F. Bland, B.L. Havens, C.H. Townes. \New experimental test of special relativity." Phys. Rev. Letters., 1958, Vol. 1, No. 9. pp. 342{349.
[25] D.C. Cyampney, G.P. Isaac, M. Khan. \An ether drift experiment based on the Mssbauer e ect." Phys., Letters., 1963, Vol. 7, pp. 241{243.
[26] T.S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murbeam, C.H. Townes. \Test of special relativity or space isotropy by use of infrared masers." Phys. Rev., 1964. Vol. 133a, pp. 1221{1225.
[27] L.G. Loytsyansky. \Mechanics of uid and gas." Nauka, Moskow, 1973, 848 pp. (in Russia).
[28] N.A. Slezkin. \Dynamics of viscous incompressible uid." Gostechizdat, Moskow, 1955, 520 pp. (in Russia).
[29] S.G. Rautian. \Rozhdestvensky's Interferometer." In the book \Physical encyclopaedic vocabulary." The Soviet encyclopedia, Moskow, 1962, Vol. 2. p. 203 (in Russia).
[30] L.Z. Rumshisky. \Mathematical processing of the experiment results." Nauka, Moskow, 1971, 192 pp. (in Russia).
& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 225{233 Spacetime Substance,
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC
ON THE BASIS FOR GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORY
S.N. Arteha1
Space Research Institute, Profsoyuznaya 84/32, Moscow 117997, Russia
Received December 23, 2002
The basic concepts of the general relativity theory (GRT), such as space, time, the relativity of simultaneity, are systematically analyzed. The logical inconsistencies of basic GRT notions are indicated. Many disputable and contradictory points of this theory and its corollaries are considered in detail.
1. Introduction
A series of logical paradoxes has been analyzed in detail in [1-3], and the complete experimental and logical gthroeuGndRlTesscnoenstsaoinf sSRsoTmwe arsatdheemr oinnstterraetsetdin.gUindleiakse, SsRuTch, as the principle of equivalence expressed via the idea of \geometrization." If it's basis were true, the GRT could have a claim on status of a hypothesis about some correction to the static Newton's law of gravitation. Since it is not the case, the gravitation theory must be constructed in a di erent manner.
The basic purpose of this work is the criticism of basis notions of GRT; it is contained in Section 2. A logical inconsistency of space and time notions in GRT is demonstrated here. The plausible errors and disputable points from the textbooks [4-6] are displayed step by step. The time synchronization issues and the Mach principle are also discussed, and the attention is given to doubtful corollaries from GRT. Section 3 contains the conclusions.
2. Criticism of GRT Fundamentals
Many GRT inconsistencies are well-known: 1) the principle of correspondence is violated (the limiting transition to the case without gravitation can not exist without introducing the arti cial external conditions); 2) the conservation laws are absent; 3) the relativity of accelerations contradicts the experimental facts (rotating liquids under space conditions have the shape of ellips4o)idths,ewshinegruealasrnsoonlu-rtoiotantsinegxiosnt.es(U- tshuealslpy,haerniycatlhsehoarpye)is; considered to be inapplicable in similar cases, but GRT for saving its \universal character" begins to construct fantastic pictures, such as black holes, Big Bang, etc.). begLinetwuitshcothnesidmeyrtthhe\ognentehrealcocvlaairmiasncoef."theTGheRuTn.aWme-
1e-mail: sergey.arteha@mtu-net.ru
bmiginueodu,sesxocleupttiotnheoffoarnmy odfi thereenetqiuaalteioqnu,atailosno ibsydsepteecr-i cation of the initial and/or boundary conditions. If they are not speci ed, then, in the general case, the covariance either does not determine anything, or, at cinhaangpihnygsitchael cnhoanrsaecntseer. oIff,thheowsoelvuetri,onth,ecainniteivaelnanreds/uoltr boundary conditions are speci ed, then with substitution of the solutions we obtain the identities, which will remain to be identities in any case for any correct transformations. For any solution it is possible to invent the equations, which will be invariant with respect to some speci ed transformation, if we properly interchange the initial and/or boundary conditions.
The analogies with subspaces are often used in the GRT; for example, a rolled at sheet is considered. However, the subspace cannot be considered separately from the space as a whole. For example, in rolling a sheet into a cylinder the researcher usually transfers, for convenience, into the cylindrical coordinate system. However, this mathematical manipulation does not in uence at all the real three-dimensional space and the real shortest distance.
The simplicity of postulates and their minimum quantity do not still guarantee the correctness of the stoioluntsiiosna: deivecnultthperopbroleomf .oTf heqeuniuvamlebnecreofopfrGerReqTuissoitluesshould be, on one hand, sucient for obtaining a correct unambiguous solution, and, on the other hand, it should provide wide possibilities for choosing mathememaatitciacsl mpoestsheosdsessoiftssooluwtnionlawansd).cTomhepaGrRisTon, (atlhoengmwatithharti cial complication of mathematical procedures, has introduced, in fact, the additional number of \hidden tting parameters" (from metrical tensor components). Since the real eld and metrics are unknown in GRT and are subject to determination, the result is simply tted to necessary one with using a small amount of really various experimental data.
Whereas in SRT though an attempt was made to
226
S.N. Arteha
con rm the constancy of light speed experimentally and to prove the equality of intervals theoretically, in GRT eGcvaResenT, stsuhicnehcienattiettegmcraaplntRsdabhedaplveenisdnnooottnbmetehenaenupinnadgtehfurtloaifkneitnnht.eeSggrienancteieoriannl, all integral quantities and integral-involving derivations can have no sense.
A lot of questions cause us to muse. If the general covariance of equations is indispensable and unambiguous, then what could be the limiting transition to classical equations, which are not generally covariant? What is the sense of gravitation waves, if the notion of energy and its density is not de ned in GRT? Similarly, what is meant in this case by the group velocity of light (and by the niteness of a signal transmission rate)?
The generality of conservation laws does not depend on the method of their derivation (either by means of transformations from the physical laws or from symmetries of the theory). The obtaining of integral quantities and the use of integration over the surface can lead to di erent results in the case of motion of the surface (for example, it can depend on the order of limiting transitions). The absence in GRT of the laws of conservation of energy, momentum, angular momentum and center of masses, which have been con rmed by numerous experiments and have \worked" for centuries, cause serious doubts in GRT (following the principle of continuity and eligibility of the progress of science). The GRT, however, has not yet built up a reputation for itself in anything till now, except globalistic claims on tohfethperiUnnciipvaerllsye aunndvesroi maeblrea,thbeyr edxopuebrtimfueln ttst,inegvsoluuntdioenr a scarce experimental base. The following fact causes even more doubt in GRT: for the same system (and only of \insular" type) some similarity of the notion of enevregcytocra. nHsoowmeveetirm, oenslbyelininetarrocdouocreddinwaittehs suhsoinugldKbielliunsge'ds in this case, but not polar ones, for example. The auxiliary mathematical means can not in uence, of course, the essence of the same physical quantity. And, nally, the non-localizability of energy and the possibility of its spontaneous non-conservation even in the Universe scales (this is a barefaced \perpetuum mobile") cause us to refuse from GRT completely and either to revise the conception \from zero," or to use some other developing approaches. Now we shall pass from general comments to more speci c issues.
The question on the change of space geometry in GRT is fully aberrant. The niteness of the rate of transmission of interactions can change only physical, bthuattntohtemstartahigemhtaltiincealdloawess.noWt hexetishte,rosnhlayllbweceauasseseritts, drawing into in nity, even at light speed, will require in nite time? (The same is true for the plane and space). The mathematical sense of derivatives can not change as well. One of GRT demonstrations \on the inevitabili-
ty of the change of geometry in the non-inertial system" is as follow: in the rotating coordinate system, due to contraction of lengths, the ratio of the length of a circle to its diameter will be lower, than . In fact, however, not only the true, but even the observed geometry will not change: whether the mathematical line will move or change as we move? Suppose at rst, that the circle will move radially. Let we have three concentric circles of almost the same radius. We place the observers on these circles and number them in the order from the center: 1, 2, 3. Let the second observer be motionless, whereas rst and third ones are rotating around center O clockwise and counter-clockwise at the same angular velocity. Then, owing to the di erence in relative velocities and contraction of lengths, the observers will interchange their places. However, when they happen to be at the same point of space, they will see di erent pictures. Indeed, the 1-st observer will see the following position from the center: 3, 2, 1, whereas the 2-nd observer will see the di erent order: 1, 3, 2, and only the 3-rd observer will see the original picture: 1, 2, 3. So, we have a contradiction. Suppose now, that the geometry of a rotating plane has changed. However, what will be more preferable in such a case: the top or the bottom? The problem is symmetric, in fact; to what side the plane has curved in such a case? If we make the last supposition, that the radius has curved (as the apparent motion changes in the non-inertial system), then the second observer will see it as non-curved, whereas the rst and third observers will consider it as \curved" to di erent sides. Thus, three observers will see di erent pictures at the same point for the same space; therefore, the curvature of the radius is not an objective fact.
The rotating circle proves the contradictive nature of SRT and GRT ideas. Really, according to the textbooks, the radius, which is perpendicular to the motion, does not change. Therefore, the circles will remain at their places irrespective of the motion. Let us seat the observers on a motionless circle at equal distances from each other and produce a point-like ash from the center of a circle, in order the observers to draw the strokes on moving circles. Owing to the symmetry of a problem, the strokes will also be equidistant. At subsequent periodic ashes each observer will con rm, that a stroke mark passes by him at the ash instant, that is, the lengths of segments of motionless and rotating circles are equal. When the circles stop, the marks will remain at their places. The number of equidistant marks will not change. Therefore, the lengths of segments will be equal in the motionless case as well. Thus, no contraction of lengths and change of geometry took place at all.
Now we consider again the space geometry problem. This problem is entirely confused still since the times of Gauss, who wanted to determine the geometry with the help of light beams. The limited nature of any experi-
On the Basis for General Relativity Theory
227
A
L
B
g
C
Figure 1: \Geometry of a triangle"
ment can not in uence the ideal mathematical notions, does it? Note, that in GRT the light even moves not awlilgRhohendtrgleint=gh seu0 cs,hhiswoamretceehastastrevic?peatiTetnhnh:sGeoirnRn.eTscWtee[sah4sd]ia:ttyodfooRFfee(csr1hmd=apinasttggi'i0nsn0gg)pudrtilishnh=ecitpgh0elee-, ometry is often \substantiated" in textbooks as follows: in order the light to \draw" a closed triangle in the gravitational eld, the mirrors should be turned around at some angle; as a result, the sum of angles of a triangle will di er from . However, for any point-like body and three re ectors in the eld of gravity (see Fig. 2) the sum of \angles" can be written as:
!
!
X i =  + 4 arctan
gL
2v02
2 arctan
gL v02
:
It occurs, that the geometry of one and the same space
depends on the conditions of the experiment: on L and
vca0n.
Since the angle between also be changed, we have a
the mirrors A and B possibility of arti cial
changing the geometry within wide limits. Note, that
the same variable parameters and L remain for the
light as well. In such \plausible" proofs of the neces-
sity of changing the geometry some important points
are not emphasized. First, both in the experiment with
material points, and in the experiment with the light
the geometry is \drawn" sequentially during some time,
rather than instantaneously. Second, for accelerated
systems the particles (and the light) move in vacuum
rectilinearly, according to the law of inertia, and, ac-
tually, the motion of the boundaries of this accelerated
system is imposed on this motion additively. All an-
gles of incidence (in the laboratory system) are equal
to corresponding angles of re ection, and the \geome-
try of angles" does not change at all. Simply, the gure
is obtained unclosed because of motion of the bound-
aries. Third, the role of the boundaries is not uncovered
at all in determining the relations between the lengths
of real bodies. For example, if all points of a real body are subject to the e ect of identical accelerating force, then the mutual relation between lengths and angles (\the geometry") remains unchanged. If, however, only the boundaries are subject to acceleration, then all real changes of bodies' size take place only at interaction with the boundaries. In any case the Euclidean straight lines can be drawn. For example, to draw the horizontal straight line in the gravitational eld we take two similar long rods. At the middle of the rst rod we install a point-like support. As a result of bending of a rod, the upward-convex line is generated. Then we install two point-like supports for the second rod at the level of two lowered ends of the rst rod. As a result of bending of the second rod, the downward-convex line is generated. The middle line between these two bonded rods determines the straight line.
Now we shall turn to the next important GRT notion - the equivalence of the gravitational eld to some system non-inertiality. In contrast to any non-inertial system, the gravitational eld possesses some unique property: all moving objects de ect in it toward a single center. If we generate two light beams between two ideal parallel mirrors and direct them perpendicular to mirrors, then in the inertial system these beams will move parallel to each other for in nitely long time. A similar situation will take place at acceleration in the non-inertial system, if the mirrors are oriented perpendicular to the direction of acceleration. And, on the contrary, in the gravitational eld with similar orientation of mirrors the light beams will begin to approach esuarcehdotdhuerri.ngAnthde, iofbssoemrveaeti oenc,t twhielnl ,haopwpienng ttoo bae gmreeaatvalue of light speed, the existence of namely the gravitational eld (rather than the non-inertiality) can also be found. Obviously, the curvature of mirrors should nitoattiboenatlakfoernceinsttohceorenseixdiesrtatailosno,tshinecoet,haelronfogrwceist,hwghraicvhcan retain the mutual con guration of mirrors. The distinction of a spherical symmetry from planar one can be found for weak gravitational elds as well. The GRT conclusion on the possibility of excluding the gravitational eld for some inertial system during the whole observation time is wrong in the general case.
The equivalence principle of the gravitational eld and acceleration can be related to one spatial point onlbye,aim.e.dite isecutniorena,lf(oirt elexaadmedplteo).aTfahleseerqeusiuvlatlfeonrctehperliingchitple of the inertial and gravitating mass can be rigorously formulated also for a separate body only (it is unreal for GRT, since GRT involves interdependence of the snpoatcpeh-tyimsicealalnydpraollcebeodditeos)a.nyBencoanu-sreeloaftitvhisist,icGtRheTordyoaest all (but formally mathematically only). All relativistic linear transformations can be related to empty space only, since real bodies (even as reference points) lead to nonlinear properties of the space. Then, phenome-
228
S.N. Arteha
na di erences with changing reference systems must be
studied for the same point (in the space and time). But
how can two di erent observers be placed at one point?
Therefore, the relativistic approach can possess the ap-
proximate model character only (without globality).
It is not any surprising thing, that the same physical
value - a mass - can participate in di erent phenomena:
as a measure of inertia (for any acting forces, includ-
ing the gravitational one) and as a graviting mass (for
example, a moving charge produces both electric and
magnetic elds). The question on the rigorous equality
of inertial and gravitating massess is entirely arti cial,
since this equality depends on the choice of a numeri-
cal value of the gravitational constant . For example,
expressions (laws) retain the same form in the case of
pstraonptorwtiiollnbaelitdye mnged=a sm i0n=, b u2t t.heItgriasvnitoattinoencaelsscaorny-
to search any mystics and to create pictures of curved
space. The substitution of the same value (for the in-
ertial and gravitating mass) is made not only for GRT,
but for the Newton's theory of gravitation as well. It is
nothing more than an experimental fact.
When one comes to the dependence of a form of
equations on space-time properties [7], there exists
some speculation for this idea. The impression is given
that we can change this space-time to check the de-
pendence claimed. In fact, the Universe is only one
(unique). GRT tries to add a complexity of the Uni-
verse to any local phenomena, which is not positive
for science. The choice of local coordinates is a di er-
ent matter (a phenomenon symmetry can simplify the
description) and globality is not the case again.
The use of non-inertial systems in GRT is contra-
dictory intrinsically. Really, in a rotating system rather
distant objects will move at velocity greater than light
speed; but SRT and GTR assert, that the apparent
velocities should be lower, than c. However, the ex-
perimental fact is as follows: the photograph of the
sky, taken from the rotating Earth, indicates, that the
visible solid-state rotation is observed. The use of a ro-
tating system does not contradict the classical physics
at any distance from the center, whereas in GRT the
vinaaludemoisfsigb0l0e
component in GRT).
becomes
negative
(but
this
is
The notion of time in GRT is confused beyond the
limit as well. What does it mean by the clock syn-
chronization, if it is possible only along the unclosed
lines? The change of time reference point in moving
around a closed path is an obvious contradiction of
GRT, since at a great synchronization rate many simi-
lar passes-around can be made, and arbitrary aging or
rejuvenation can be obtained. For example, considering
the vacuum (emptiness) to be rotating (if we ourselves
shall move around a circle), we can get various results
depending on a mental idea.
Using the modi ed paradox of twins [1], the inde-
pendence of time on acceleration can easily be proven.
Let two astronauts - the twins - are at a great distance
from each other. On a signal of the beacon, situated at
the middle, these astronauts begin to y toward a bea-
con at the same acceleration. Since in GRT the time
depends on the acceleration and the acceleration has
relative character, each of the astronauts will believe,
that his twin brother is younger than he is. At meeting
near the beacon they can exchange photos. However,
owing to the problem symmetry, the result is obvious:
the time in an accelerated system ows at the same rate,
as in non-accelerated one. If we suppose the gravita-
tional eld to be equivalent to the acceleration (accord-
ing to GRT), then we obtain, that the time intervals do
not depend on the gravitational eld presence.
Now we make some remarks concerning the method
of synchronization of times by means of a remote pe-
riodic source disposed perpendicular to the motion of
a body [1]. We begin with inertial systems. The pos-
sibility of time synchronization on restricted segments
makes it possible to synchronize the time throughout
the line of motion. Indeed, if for each segment there
exists an arbitrarily remote periodic source sending the
following of passed
information: seconds (the
ittsimneumrebfeerrenNcje,
the quantity point is not
cnoj-
ordinated with other sources), then the observers at
junctions of segments can compare the time reference
point for a source on the left and for a source on the
right. Transmitting this information sequentially from
the rst observer to the last one, it is possible to estab-
lish a single time reference point (the time itself, as it
was shown in [1], has absolute sense).
Apparently, the observed rate of transmission of
synchronization signals has no e ect on the determina-
tion of duration of times: the pulses (for example, light
spheres or particles), which mark the number of passed
seconds, will equidistantly ll the whole space, and the
number of spheres emitted by a source will be equal
to the number of spheres, which intersect the receiving
observer. (We are not the gods, you see, to be able
to introduce the \beginning of times": the time takes
already its normal course and elapses uniformly.) Even
if we consider the apparent signal propagation rate to
be c = c(r), then, irrespective of the path of light, the
number of spheres reached the receiving observer (hav-
ing a zero velocity component in the source direction)
will be the same as the number of spheres emitted by a
source (simply, the spheres can be spatially thickened
or rare ed somewhere). Thus, the full synchronization
is possible in the presence of spatial inhomogeneities (of
the gravitational eld) as well.
In physics it is not accepted to take into account
the same e ect twice. It is clear, that the accelera-
tion and gravitation express some force, that in uences
various processes. But this will be the general result
of the e ect of namely the forces. For example, not
any load can be withstood by a man, the pendulum
clock will not operate under zero gravity, but this does
On the Basis for General Relativity Theory
229
not mean, that the time stopped. Therefore, the rough
Hafele-Keating's experiment states the trivial fact, that
the gravitation and acceleration somehow in uence the
processes in a cesium atomic watch, and the high rela-
tive accuracy of this watch is fully groundless for a xed
site. Besides, interpretation of this experiment contra-
dicts the \explanation" of the Pound-Rebka's experi-
ment with supposition about independence of frequen-
cy of emission in \the units of intrinsic atom time" [5]
on gravitational eld. Besides, a further uncertainty in
GRT must be taken into consideration: there can ex-
ist immeasurable rapid eld uctuations (with a rate
greater than inertness of measuring instruments) even
in ty
tehxeisatsbsfoenr caenyofvtahlueemoefagn: seilndcegt.hSeutcihmethien
uncertainGRT does
not will
dbeepennodnzoenroge-vdeinrecwtiitohn,<thegn>a=n
e ective potential 0. Whether is it
possible to invent, though theoretically, a precise watch,
which can be worn by anybody? Probably, a rotating
ywheel with a mark (in the absence of friction - on
a superconducting suspension), whose axis is directed
along the gravitational eld gradient (or along the re-
sultant force) could read out the correct time. At least,
no obvious reasons and mechanisms of changing the ro-
tation rate are seen in this case. Certainly, for weak
gravitation elds such a watch will be less accurate at
the modern stage, than cesium one. We hypothesize,
that atom decay is anisotropic, and this anisotropy can
be interrelated with a direction of the atomic magnetic
moment. In this case we can regulate atomic moments
and freeze the system. Then, the \frozen clock" will
register di erent time depending on its orientation in
the gravitational eld.
Now we return to synchronizing signals (for simul-
taneous measurement of lengths, for example). For a
rectilinearly moving, accelerated system it is possible
to use the signals from a remote source being perpen-
dicular to the line of motion, and for the segment of
a circle the source can be at its center. These cases
actually cover all non-inertial motions without gravi-
tation. (Besides, for the arbitrary planar motion it is
possible to make use of a remote periodic source being
on a perpendicular to the plane of motion.) For the
real gravitational eld of spherical bodies in arbitrary
motion along the equipotential surfaces it is possible to
use periodic signals issuing from the gravitational eld
center.
Note, that to prove the inconsistency of SRT and
GRT conclusions on the change of lengths and time
intervals it is sucient, that the accuracy of ideal mea-
surement of these values could principally exceed the
value of the e ect predicted by SRT and GRT. For ex-
ample, for a source being at the middle perpendicular
to the line of motion we have: t = l2=(8Rc); that
is, t can be decreased not only by choosing the great
radius of a light sphere, but also by choosing a small
section of motion l. From the SRT formulas on time
contraction we have: t = l(1 p1 v2=c2)=v. If for nite R and speci ed speed v we choose such l, that the inequality
l=(8Rc) < (1 p1 v2=c2)=v;
(1)
be met, then the conclusions of relativistic theories occur to be invalid.
For the system arbitrarily moving along the radius (drawn from the gravitational eld center) it is possible to use for synchronization a free falling periodic source on the perpendicular to the line of motion. In this case R should be chosen of such value, that the eld can not actually change (due to equipotential sphere rounding) at this distance, and corresponding l from (1) near the point, to which the perpendicular is drawn. Therefore, the GRT conclusions can be refuted in this case as well. For the most important special cases the \universal" SRT and GRT conclusions on the contraction of distances as a property of the space itself are invalid. In the most general case it seems intuitively quite obvious, that such a position of a periodic source can be found, that the signal to come perpendicular to the motion, and that such R and l from (1) to exist, which refute the GRT results. There is no necessity at all in a \spread" frame of reference and in an arbitrarily operating clock: any change of real lengths should be explained by real forces; it is always possible to introduce a system of mutually motionless bodies and the universal time. Thus, the space and time must be Newtonian and independent on the motion of a system.
Now we pass to mathematical methods of GRT and to corollaries of this theory. The games with the spacetime properties result in the fact, that in GRT the application of variation methods occurs to be questionable: the quantities are not additive, the Lorentz transformations are non-commutative, the integral quantities depend on the path of integration. Even it is not clear, how the terminal points can be considered as xed, if the distances are di erent in di erent frames of reference.
Because of nonlocalizableness (non-shieldness) of gravitation eld, conditions on in nity (because of the mass absence on in nity, it is euclideanness) are principally important for the existence of the conservation laws [7] (for systems of the insular type only). The classical approach is more successive and useful (theoretically and practically): energy is determined correctly to a constant, since the local energy di erence between two transition points has a physical meaning (therefore, conditions on in nity is groundless).
Highly doubtful is the procedure of linearization in the general form, since it can be only individual. The tending to simplicity is declared, but even two times are introduced - coordinate and intrinsic ones. The tting to the well-known or intuitive (classically) result is often made. So, for motion of Mercury's perihelion [5] the du=d' derivative can have two signs. Which
230
S.N. Arteha
of them should be chosen? To say already nothing of
the fact, that the dividing by du=d' is performed, but
this quantity can be zero. Calculating the perihelion
displacement in GRT (from the rigorous solution for
a single attractive point), the impression is given that
we know astronomical masses exactly. If we use GRT
as a correction to Newton's theory, the situation is in
fact opposite: there exists a problem knowing visible
planet motions to reestablish the exact planet masses
(to substitute the latters and to check GRT thereafter).
Imagine the circular planet orbit. It is obvious in this
case, that the Newtonian rotation period will already
be taken with regard to an invisible precession, i.e. the
period will be renormalized. Therefore, renormalized
masses are already included in Newton's gravitation
theory. Since the GRT-corrections are much less than
the perturbation planet actions and the in uence of a
non-sphericity, the reestablishment of exact masses can
essentially change the description of a picture of the
motion for this complex many-body problem (see other
objections [2]). No such detailed analysis was carried
out. The complexity of spatial-temporal links is stat-
ed, but eventually one passes for a very long time to
customary mathematical coordinates; otherwise there
is nothing to compare the results with. For what was
there a scrambling?
The prototype of the \black hole" in Laplac's solu-
tion, where the light, moving parallel to the surface,
begins to move over a circle like the arti cial satel-
lite of the Earth, di ers from the GRT ideas. Noth-
ing prohibits the light with a rather high energy to
escape the body in the direction perpendicular to its
surface. There is no doubt, that such beams will exist
(both by internal and external reasons): for example,
the beams falling from outside will be able to accumu-
late energy, in accordance with the energy conservation
law, and to leave such a \black hole" after re ecting.
\The black holes" in GRT is a real mysticism. If we
take a long rod, then at motion its mass will increase
and the size will decrease (according to SRT). What
will happen? Is \the black hole" generated? All the
sky will become lled with \black holes," if we shall
move rapidly enough. And, you see, this process would
be irreversible.
The presence of singularities or multiple connection
of the solution implies, that, as a minimum, the solution
is inapplicable in these regions. Such a situation takes
place with the change of the space - time signature for
the \black hole" in the Schwarzschild solution, and it is
not necessary to search any arti cial philosophical sense
in this situation. The singuliarity in the Schwarzschild
solution for r mathematical
m=anrigpuclaantinoonts:
betheeliamdidniatitoend
obfy
tphuereinly-
nity with the other sign at this point is the arti cial
game with the in nities, but such a procedure requires
the physical basis. (You see, the singularity at zero is
not eliminated by arti cial addition of exp ( r)=r,
where  is a large quantity). Even from GRT follows the impossibility of observa-
tion of \black holes": the time of \the black hole" formation will be in nite for us as remote observers. And since the collapse cannot be completed, the solutions, which consider all things as though they have already happened, have no sense. The separation of events by in nite time for internal and external observers is not \an extreme example of the relativity of the time course," but the elementary manifestation of the inconsistency of Schwarzschild's solution. The same fact follows from \the incompleteness" of systems of solutions. It is not clear, what will happen with the charge conservation law, if a greater quantity of charges of the same sign will enter \the black hole"? The mystical description of \metrical tidal forces" [6] at approaching \the black hole" is invalid, since it would mean, that the gravitation force gradient is great within the limits of a body, but all GRT ideas are based on the opposite assumptions. The Kerr metric in the presence of rotation also clearly demonstrates the inconsistency of GRT: it gives in a strict mathematical manner several physically unreal solutions (the same operations, as for Schwarzschild's metric, do not save the situation).
GRT contains a lot of doubtful prerequisites and results. List some of them. For example, the requirement of gravitational eld weakness for low velocities is doubtful: if the spacecraft is landed on a massive planet, whether it can not stand or slowly move? Whether some molecules with low velocities cannot be found in spite of temperature uctuations? The consideration of a centrally symmetric eld in GRT has not physical sense as well: since the velocity can be only radial, then not only rotations, but even real temperature characteristics can not exist (i.e. T = 0K ). The eld in a cavity is not obtained in a single manner, but, simply, two various constants are postulated in order to avoid singularities. The emission of gravitation waves for a parabolic motion (with eccentricity e = 1) results in the in nite loss of energy and angular momentum, which obviously contradicts the experimental data. In fact, GRT can be applied only for weak elds and weak rotations, i.e. in the same region, as the Newtonian theory of gravitation. Recall that the interaction between moving charges di ers from the static Coulomb law. Therefore, prior to applying the static Newtonian law of gravitation, it must be veri ed for moving bodies, but this is a prerogative of the experiment.
The theories of evolution of the Universe will remain the hypotheses for ever, because none of assumptions (even on the isotropy and homogeneity) can be veri ed: \a moving train, which departed long ago, can be catched up only at the other place and at the other time." GRT assigns to itself the resolution of a series of paradoxes (gravitational, photometric, etc.). However, the classical physics has also described the possibilities of resolution of similar paradoxes (for example, by
On the Basis for General Relativity Theory
231
means of Charlier's structures, etc.). Apparently, the direction, points of application etc.). \The reference
Universe is not a spread medium, and we do not know points" are actually speci ed, with respect to which
at all its structure as a whole to assert the possibility the subsequent changes of quantities (position, veloc-
of realization of conditions for similar paradoxes (more ity, acceleration etc.) are investigated. The principal
probably, the opposite situation is true). For example, relativity of all quantities in GRT contradicts the ex-
the Olbers paradox can easily be understood on the ba- periments. The subsequent arti cial attempt to derive
sis of the analogy with the ocean: the light is absorbed, accelerations (or rotations) with respect to the local
scattered and re ected by portions, and the light sim- geodesic inertial Lorentzian system - this is simply the
ply ceases to penetrate to a particular depth. Certainly, tting to only workable and experimentally veri ed co-
such \a depth" is huge for the rare ed Universe. How- ordinates of the absolute space (GRT does not contain
ever, the ashing stars represent rather compact objects any similar things organically [7]).
spaced at great distances from each other. As a result, The Mach principle of stipulation of an inert mass
only a nite number of stars make a contribution into and absolute nature of the acceleration due to the in u-
the light intensity of the night sky.
ence of far stars is also doubtful, since it explains the in-
The expanding of the Universe gives a red shift ac- trinsic properties of one body via the properties of other
cording to the Doppler e ect irrespective of GRT. Be- bodies. Of course, the idea is elegant in itself. If ev-
sides, it should be taken into consideration, that even erything in the world is supposed to be interdependent
the elementary scattering will make contribution in- and some ideal complete equation of state is believed to
to the red shift and lling of the so-called relic radi- exist, then any property of bodies should be determined
ation: recall that the Compton e ect gives waves with by the in uence of the whole remaining Universe. How-
0 >
been
w0e.llTphreedshicitfetdofelvinenesbiny
the gravitational eld has mechanistic models from
ever, in such a case any particle should be considered to be individual. This way is faulty for science, which
the general energy considerations.
progresses from smaller knowledge to greater, since \it
Now we pass to the following principal issue. Whether is impossible to grasp the immense." Actually, if we
positive is the fact, that the distribution and motion take into account the non-uniform distribution of mass
of the matter cannot be speci ed arbitrarily? And (in compact objects) and di erent values of attraction
whether is it correct? Generally, this implies the incon- forces from close and far objects, then the complete
sistency of the theory, because there exist other forces, \tugging" would be obtained instead of uniform rota-
except gravitational ones, which are also capable to tion or uniform inertial motion of an object.
transpose the matter. From the practical viewpoint The Mach principle cannot be veri ed in essence:
this means, that we should specify all distributions both removal of all bodies from the Universe and tend-
in \the correct-for-GRT" manner even at the initial ing of the gravitation constant to zero are the abstrac-
time instant. to \the time
In of
such a case creation,"
we did
swheo?uldArnefderwth0aitnsptrainnt-
tions having nothing in common with the reality. However, it is possible to estimate the in uence of \far
ciples should be unambiguously determinate for such stars" experimentally by considering the mass of the
a choice? This requires more knowledge, than it is Universe as mainly concentrated in compact objects.
expected from GRT. Open to question occurs to be The force of attraction of a star having a mass of the
the possibility of point-like description and the theory order of the Sun's mass (M  2 1030 kg), being at the
of disturbances, because the resulting values cannot distance of 1 light year ( 9 1015 m), is equivalent to
be arbitrary as well. The joining of a completely unknown equation of state implies arti cial complication
the the
action of a distance of
l1oamdehtearv.inWgeasmhaalslsmofakoenluysem, 0for a2w5 hgilaet,
of macro- and micro-levels by linkage and re ects the of the doubtful Big Bang theory and shall consider the
possibility of arbitrary ttings (for example, the tem- time for the Universe to be equal to  2 1010 years.
perature dependence is rejected). The possibility of Even if the stars y away with light speed, we would
adding the cosmological constant into Einstein's equa- have the size of the Universe equal to  2 1010 light
tions is an indirect recognition of ambiguity of GRT years. We have deliberately increased all quantities;
equations and of possible outrage. If everything can for example, the mass of the Universe and its density
be speci ed to such an accuracy, then why cannot we   1033=1054  10 21 g=cm3. We take into account
specify in arbitrary manner the initial distribution and now, that, as the bodies move away from each other
the motion of a matter?
at the two-fold distance, the force decreases four-fold,
Let us discuss one more principal point concerning etc. Even if we suppose the mean distance between
the relativity of all quantities in GRT. The laws, written the stars to be 1 light year, then at the distance of 1
simply as the equations, determine nothing by themselves. The solution of any problem still requires the knowledge of speci c things, such as the characteristics
meter it is necessary to place the mass 2251021=06)<of5M0 g0.In25fa(1ct+, c1o=e4+ci1e=n9t+2=6)
=(w2e5sPum1=unp2
to

expresses some
of a body (mass, shape etc.), the initial and/or bound- e ective increase of the density at the observation line.
ary conditions, the characteristics of forces (magnitude, To simulate the action of \the whole Universe" we can
232
S.N. Arteha
1 r
R2
R2
1
R3
R3
2
Figure 2: The Mach principle and in uence of the Universe
take a thick metal sphere with outer radius of 1 meter
and make its thickness varying in the direction to the
center.
Let the width of a solid sphere be 0:6 meters, i.e.
from the center up to 0:4 meters there is a niche, and
further, up to 1 meter, - the metal. Then a cylindrical
column of radius  0:35 cm will correspond to mass
Mtak0e
at density of into account
 8:3 g=cm3 the in uence
. In reality, we should of stars in a cone, but
not only in a cylinder. Though we also have a spherical
metal cone, nevertheless, we shall estimate the orders
of magnitudes. We shall break a cone into cylindrical
layers, which arise as the new layers of stars are in-
volved into consideration (Fig. 2). Each new layer will
be greater, than a preceding layer, by 6 stars. The dis-
tances from the center to the nearest boundary of each
lgTalhyesee:rreoRfofirs=et1,ar=tshcie=arnc.obrTerehfcoetunionnwdeftrohoamavetmhRea0isss=im(p wilaeir2is(tu1ym+ofrut2rp)ia=tnro-.
2 1010) will be found as
m0(1
+
1 4
+

)1
+
X
i
6
R02i

<

M0 1
+
6r2
X
i
1
i




M0 1 + 6 10 5 log(2 1010)  M0(1 + 0:02):
Thus, our construction is quite sucient for taking into avcecrsoeunist i\nt hneitew,htohleenUtnhieveorbstea."ineCd ehratarminolyn,icifsetrhieesUwniil-l diverge, and the construction will be inadequate. This, however, contradicts both GRT and the modern ideas.
Let now place the globules on a spring inside the sppuhmerpee.d Tooutavfrooimd tthheecsotlrlautcetruarleea nedct,s,inthaeddaiitriocna,ntbhee globules can be isolated from the sphere by a thin vessel. Now, if we spin up the sphere, then, according to the Mach principle, the centrifugal force should appear, and the globules will move apart of each other.
In this case the centrifugal force must be the same, as though the globules themselves would rotate. It seems quite obvious, that this is impossible, since such an effect would be noticed still long ago. Thus, we return to absolute notions of acceleration, mass, space and time de ned still by Newton. However, the described experiment could appear to be useful for determining the corrections to the static Newton's law of gravitation. In this case the globules should have sucient freedom to move and to rotate, since the direction of action of correcting forces and moments of forces is unknown a priori.
The gravitational constant is not a mathematical constant at all, but it can undergo some variations [9]. Therefore, this value can account corrections to Newton's static law of gravitation (for example, these in uences do not taken into consideration for the displacement of the perihelion of the Mercury). Generally speaking, the theory of short range for gravitation could be useful (but it can be not useful depending on the gravitation transmission rate) for the nite number of cases only: for the rapid (v ! c) motion of massive (the same order) bodies close to each other. The author does not know such practical examples.
The GRT approach to gravitation is unique: to be shut in the lift (to take pleasure from the fall) and to be not aware that the end (hurt oneself) will be after a moment. Of course, the real state is quite di erent one: we see always where and how we move relative to the attractive centre (contrary to Taylor and Wheeler, it is the second \particle," together with the rst \particle" | with the observer). That is the reason that the pure geometric approach is a temporal zigzag for physics (although it could ever be useful as a auxiliary technique). And two travelers from the parable [10] have need for \very little": for the wish to move from the equator just along meridians (on the spheric earth surface), but the rest of ve billion mans can not have such the wish. Contrary to traveler's wish, the wish \to do not attract to the Earth (or the Sun) and to y away to space" is inadequate. The notion force (the force of gravity in this case) re ects this fact. Geometry cannot answer to the following questions: how many types of interactions exist in nature, why there exist they only, why there exist local masses, charges, particles, why the gravitational force is proportional just to r2, why there realize the speci c values of physical constants in nature, and many other questions. These problems are the physical (experimental) prerogative.
3. Conclusions
The paper is devoted to the GRT criticism. A set of striking doubtful points from the GRT textbooks is emphasized, beginning with general concepts of the covariance, baseline physical notions, and nishing with more
On the Basis for General Relativity Theory
233
speci c ones. The proof of the geometry invariance in a rotating coordinate system is carried out in detail. The groundlessness and inconsistency of the principle of equivalence in GRT is discussed. The inconsistency of the notion of time and its synchronization in GRT is demonstrated. The methods of time synchronization and simultaneous measurement of lengths are indicated for the most interesting special cases. The invariance of space geometry is demonstrated and the role of boundaries is also discussed in the paper. The doubtful points are emphasized both for the methods and for numerous corollaries of GRT. The inconsistency of the notion of \black holes," of Schwarzschild's solution and other GRT corollaries are considered in detail. The Mach principle and its possible veri cation are also discussed.
The ultimate conclusion of the paper consists in the ntiemceessaintyd ooff croetnusrtnruincgtintgo tchlaessgircaavlintaottiioonnsthoefosrpyaocne athnids established basis.
References
[1] S.N. Arteha, \On the Basis for Special Relativity Theory," to be published in Galilean Electrodynamics.
[2] S.N. Arteha, \On Frequency-Dependent Light Speed," to be published in Galilean Electrodynamics.
[3] S.N. Arteha, \On Relativistic Kinematic Notions," to be published in Galilean Electrodynamics.
[4] L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, \The classical Theory of Fields," Nauka, Moscow, 1988 (in Russian).
[5] P.G. Bergmann, \Introduction to the Theory of Relativity," Inostrannaya Literatura, Moscow, 1947 (in Russian).
[6] E. Schmutzer, \Relativita tstheorie - Aktuell," Mir, Moscow, 1981 (in Russian).
[7] V. Fock, \The Theory of Space, Time and Gravitation," Pergamon Press, London, 1959.
[8] A.A. Logunov, M.A. Mestvirishvili, \Relativistic Theory of Gravitation," Nauka, Moscow, 1989 (in Russian).
[9] V.P. Ismailov, O.V. Karagios, A.G. Parkhanov, \The Investigation of variations of experimental data for the gravitational constant," Physical Thought of Russia 1/2, 20{26 (1999).
[10] E.F. Taylor, J.A. Wheeler, \Spacetime Physics," W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1966.
& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 234{234 Spacetime Substance,
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC
ANOMALIES IN MOVEMENT OF \PIONEER 10/11"
AND THEIR EXPLANATION
N.A. Zhuck1
Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC Box 589, 3 Kolomenskaya St., Kharkov 61166, Ukraine
August 17, 2002
The author has o ered the version of an explanation of anomalies of the Pioneer 10/11 motion on the basis of the Universe gravitational viscosity.
Pioneer 10 was launched on 2 March 1972 and it functions till now.
Pioneer 10 distance from Sun: 80.68 AU Speed relative to the Sun: 12.24 km/sec (27,380 mph) Distance from Earth: 12.21 billion kilometers (7.59 billion miles) Round-trip Light Time: 22 hours 38 minutes
Launched on 5 April 1973, Pioneer 11 followed its sister ship. Its mission ended on 30 September 1995, when the last transmission from the spacecraft was received.
Pioneer 10/11 have anomalies in the motion. A discussion of this phenomenon appears in the 4 October 1999 issue of Newsweek magazine. The mystery of the tiny unexplained acceleration towards the Sun in the motion of the Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and Ulysses spacecraft remains unexplained.
A team of planetary scientists and physicists led by John Anderson has identi ed a tiny unexplained acceleration towards the Sun in the motion of the Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and Ulysses spacecraft. The anomalous acceleration | about 10 billion times smaller than the acceleration we feel from Earth's gravitational pull (0:76 10 10 m/sec2 in report [1]) | was identi ed after detailed analyses of radio data from the spacecraft.
A variety of possible causes were considered including: perturbations from the gravitational attraction of planets and smaller bodies in the Solar system; radiation pressure, the tiny transfer of momentum when photons impact the spacecraft; general relativity; interactions between the Solar wind and the spacecraft; possible corruption to the radio Doppler data; wobbles and other changes in Earth's rotation; outgassing or thermal radiation from the spacecraft; and the possible in uence of non-ordinary or dark matter.
After exhausting the list of explanations deemed most plausible, the researchers examined possible modi cation to the force of gravity as explained by New-
1e-mail: zhuck@ttr.com.ua
ton's law with the Sun being the dominant gravitational force.
However in 1984 the author of this work has deduced the new formula of a free motion of a material body instead of the Newton's rst law [2]
d2X dt2
+
H
dX dt
=
0;
(1)
where the label is entered
H
=
r 4G0 3
;
(2)
which corresponds to the Hubble constant, but has oth-
evrerpshe;ysXicailssaencsoeo(rhdeinreate0).
is medial density It now re ects a
of the Unidissipation
of energy at a motion of material bodies and at spread
of elds. The Hubble constant is very small and equal
approximately 10 18 1/sec.
Medial density of a substance is equal approximate-
ly 4 10 21 kg/m3 in region of Solar system (one star
per 10 cubic kiloparsecs). Then the Hubble parameter
will be equal 1:1 10 15 1/sec. And the acceleration of
Pioneer 10 equal ( 1:3) 10 11 m/sec2 for the present
time. Earlier acceleration was more.
Thus, the gravitational viscosity is the most proba-
ble reason of motion anomaly of the Pioneer 10/11. At
least gravitational viscosity should be studied.
References
[1] N.I. Kolosnitsyn. \Relativistic orbit form and anomalies in \Pioneer 10/11" dynamics." Abstracts of 11-th International Conference \Theoretical and experimental problems of General Relativity and gravitation," 2002, pp. 68-69.
[2] N.A. Zhuck. \Gravitation viscosity and geotetic curvature of the Universe." Spacetime & Substance, 1, 2, 71{77 (2000). http://spacetime.narod.ru.
& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 235{237 Spacetime Substance,
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC
AGAIN ON THE GUALA-VALVERDE HOMOPOLAR-INDUCTION EXPERIMENTS
Ricardo Achilles1
Con uencia Tech University, Rosas y Soufal - P. Huincul Neuquen, ARG Q8318EFG
Received December 21, 2002
After independent repetition of the recently reported break-through experimentation on homopolar induction by Guala-Valverde et al [Apeiron, 8, 41 (2001)] some considerations are drawn on the torque-production mechanism applicable to machines founded on that principle. These considerations are based on the \action-at-a-distance" Ampre-Weber-Assis rationale.
1. Introduction
The Guala-Valverde (G-V) and coworkers success in
solving the old conundrum known as homopolar induc-
tion rests upon the singularity introduced in an uniform
magnet [1], [2], [3], [4], [5] providing a local, short range
B- eld reversion. The most striking feature of the G-V
homopolar-motor experiments occurs when the probe
is located in the singularity: while the free-to-rotate
probe denotes the presence of forces in correspondence
with the eld reversion observed in that region, the sta-
tionary circuit-closing wire remains insensitive to the
magnet singularity. It behaves as if there were no sin-
gularity at all! This experimental fact enabled G-V to
locate the seat of electromotive and ponderomotive ac-
tions in homopolar machines [1] con rming besides the
symmetry of both, generator and motor con gurations.
The aforementioned, quiet a trivial fact for ordinary
ux-varying machines, was a rather obscure issue for
almost two centuries in the homopolar devices' case.
Energy conversion by a machine is made possible by
the relative motion of two of its constitutive parts; in
the speci c case of electrical machines these two parts
are an active conductor -the probe or the closing wire in
G-V's nomenclature- and a magnet (or a second active
conductor). Any electrical-circuit part anchored to the
magnet will no longer play an active energy-conversion
role; it will be just a current-path closing means. The
remaining electrical circuit -with motion relative to the
magnet enabled- takes over energy conversion (mechan-
ical to electrical for a generator or vice versa for a mo-
tor). Fig. 1 sketches a homopolar motor where a cen-
tripetal direct current is applied to the probe attached
to the upward interaction in
tBhi-s cealdsefaccaenobf ea sdpilsikt
magnet. The main in two [1], [6]:
1e-mail: achilles@ieee.org
Figure
closing
w1i:reTorques
on
the
homopolar-motor
magnet
and
| Magnet-probe: The magnet exerts a counterclockwise torque on the probe, the probe an equal but opposite torque on the magnet.
| Magnet-closing wire: The magnet exerts a clockwise torque on the closing wire, the closing wire an equal but opposite torque on the magnet. relaTtihvee pmroobtieonattaancdhedthteo athcteiomna-rgenaecttidoonescannocteplleartmioint mechanism among both parts inhibits energy conversion. On the contrary, the closing wire -with electrical continuity with the probe attained via the mercury ctoolltehcetomr raignngest- epnoasbselisnsegs erneelargtiyvecomnvoetirosnionw.ithThreisspleacttter interaction is the main responsible for the observed magnet-plus-probe rotation. Ironically, and against the customary absolutist argument of the magnet being dragged by the probe [1], the magnet is the drag-
236
Ricardo Achilles
Figure 2: Ampre-law current elements
ging agent. The additional closing wire-probe (currentcurrent) interaction was dismissed in the G-V analysis due to its negligible e ect in comparison to the described mechanism.
As an IEEE member, last months some specialists came along asking me on the homopolar torqueproduction mechanism. I am intending to answer on this issue here.
2. AElmecptrreodvyenrsaumsiScstandard
Ampre force law [7], [8], draws the expression for the magnitude of the mechanical forces applied on two current elements Idl, I'dl' separated a distance r (see Fig. 2) as:
d2F = (o=4)(I I0=r2)[(2(dl dl0)
3(r dl)(r dl0)=r2]:
(1)
This formulation supplies a quite suitable tool to
better forces
oubnedyerNsteawntdont'hsethhoirmdolpawolabreipnhgenitosmdeirneac:titohnecdo2inF-
ctaidnecnetbaletwwietehntthheeocnuerroefnttheelesmegemntesn.tRredpeu lnsiinong
the dis(attrac-
tion) occurs for a positive (negative)d2F magnitude.
As it is well known, a magnet may be modeled by
Ampre equivalent magnetizing currents [9], [10]. In
the homopolar-motor uniform B- eld case, the magnet
can be de ned as a cylindrical azymuthal current shell.
The equivalent current I' of such a cilindrical magnet is
shown in Fig. 3, in conjunction with a centripetal con-
duction current I circulating through the probe. A few
quantitative considerations based on equation (1) can
be applied to the above described con guration to un-
derstand the homopolar torque-production mechanism:
the Ampre formulation dependence on (1/r2) de nes
the magnetic-shell current elements located more close-
ly to the probe as the ones producing the main inter-
action. Let us consider the action of two such current
eIfdodller'lmcl(eoescendaet2tsFeFId'i'g2da.l)b'w3oa)vni:ledl a(aabnpepplaroetoawtbrr)aeoctncthoieontnhdpeurfoocmbtriceaoegnend-lece2mutF-rser'hne1ent(ltlrdeeelp.lleeummSlsuieeocnnnhtt
forces will include, in the general case indicated in the
Figure 3: Magnetizing shell-probe Ampre interaction in the
uniform eld motor
gure, radial and azymuthal components acting on the
bulk of the magnet. These latter components are the
main responsibles for the observed clockwise rotation.
This dominant interaction can be eliminated simply by
attaching the probe to the magnet. In such case, the
only interaction left is the counterclockwise torque ap-
plied on the magnet by the closing-wire current.
Standard Electrodynamics (SE) considerations based
omnatghneetLizaipnlgacceu'rsreexnpt reelsesmioenntdsFfa=ilIt(odelxxBpl)aianphpolimedoptooltahre-
devices torque production since -by vector product
pelreompeernttisesa-realrladthiael
forces to the
acting on the shell current magnet and, therefore, un-
able to generate torque (It has to be kept in mind that
during the last century the unrestricted equivalence
of the Ampre and SE formulations was con rmed for
closed circuits [7]). Moreover, a closed circuit in the
vicinity of an arbitrary current element will apply on
it forces perpendicular to its length (a fact manifestly
observed in the probe). In the G-V experiments the
interaction to look at is the one existing between a
nite current element (the probe or the closing wire)
ainngdcaurcrleonste)d. cAirncudith(etrhe,e aBcc- oredldinegqutoivaSlEen,tthmeacglnoestinizg-
wire is unable to produce any torque on the magnet:
a fact quite in opposition to experience! Conversely,
the interaction of the magnet with the mechanically
attached probe- plus-closing-wire circuit leads to the
same outcome for either formulation: a null torque on
both, closed circuit and magnet [7], [11]. At last, it is
also interesting to have a look of the current interaction
taking place in the magnet's singularity shown in Fig.
4. The currents interacting here are the centripetal
Again on the Guala-Valverge Homopolar-Induction Experiments
237
Figure 4: Magnetizing shell-probe Ampre interaction in the
G-V dynamotor magnet singularity
conduction current through the probe and the equivalent magnetizing-shell current along the singularity's edges. While the upper-edge magnetizing current repehdiegglshe-tmhateatgrpanrcoittbusedtewhceitlohpcrekolwebmieseewnttoiatrhrqyufeofororccneessitd.d22FF21r,etshueltilnogwear
3. Final Remarks
A conclusive statement on the superiority of the Ampre formulation for the analysis of the interaction beetween current-carrying wires and uniform magnets has been derived from the G-V experiments. The requirement of relative motion among both parts here, is in strict correspondence with the similar for generation action [10]. Conversely Grassmann SE -attributing motor action unilaterally to the probe wire even if attached to the magnet- fails in recognize homopolar machines' full symmetry.
The Ampre-formulation inclusion in electromagnetism programs at both intermediate and graduate levels seems a necessary outcome of this article.
This essay is ended with Maxwell's quote on the Ampre expression: \The whole theory . . . is summed
up in a formula . . . which must always remain
the cardinal formula of electrodynamics". James Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Dover (1954). [See also references 7 and 8].
\We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sucient to explain their
appearances." (Newton).
theiAr chkenlpofwulletdecghmniecnatls:assTisotanNcoer.patTaognJicoargRe &GDuafloarValverde who de nitively red my interest in Weber's Electrodynamics and on the Ampre force. To Pedro Mazzoni for his mastery in experimental physics.
References
[1] J. Guala-Valverde & P. Mazzoni, Apeiron, 6, 202 (1999).
[2] J. Guala-Valverde, P. Mazzoni, Spacetime & Substance Journal, 12, N 4, 785 (1999).
[3] J. Guala Valverde, P. Mazzoni & R. Achilles, American Journal of Physics, 70, N 10, 1052 (2002).
[4] J. Guala Valverde, Physica Scripta. 66, 252, (2002). [5] J. Guala-Valverde, Spacetime & Substance, 3, 94 (2002) [6] J(D. Gecu.a2l0a0-V2)alverde, \In nite Energy." To be published [7] A.K.T. Assis, \Weber's Electrodynamics." Kluwer,
Dordrecht, 1994. [8] A.K.T. Assis, \Relational Mechanics." Apeiron, Mon-
treal, 1999. [9] K.K.H. Panofsky and M. Phillips, \Classical Electricity
and Magnetism." Addisson Wesley, New York, 1955. [10] T.E. Phipps Jr. & J. Guala-Valverde, 21st Century
Science & Technology, 11, 55 (1998). [11] M. Bueno & A.K.T. Assis, \Inductance and Force Cal-
culation in Electrical Circuits." Nova Science Publishers, Huntinghton, New York, 2001.
& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 238{240 Spacetime Substance,
c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC
Spacetime & Substance
Contents of issues for 2002 year
Vol. 3 (2002), No. 1 (11)
Viktor Aleshinsky. ELECTRODYNAMICS: THE CONSISTENT FORMULAS OF INTERACTION FOR A CURRENT ELEMENTS, A MOVING CHARGES AND NEW EFFECTS (1).
MichHelABMoIuLTniOaNs.IAONN
SPACETIME DIFFERENTIAL COMPONENTS (15).
ELEMENTS
AND
THE
DISTRIBUTION
OF
BIO-
P.
A.LVAWarSenOikF
aNnEdWYTuO. NPI.AVNaDreYnNikA.MTIHCES
NEW (20).
VIEW
ON
THE
NATURE
OF
BODYS
INERTIA
AND
V.V. Dvoeglazov. GENERALIZED NEUTRINO EQUATIONS BY THE SAKURAI-GERSTEN METHOD] (28).
Miroslav Sukenik and Jozef Sima. THE HYDROGEN ATOM | A COMMON POINT OF PARTICLE PHYSICS, COSMOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY (31).
Miroslav Sukenik and Jozef Sima. NEUTRON STAR PROPERTIES VIEVED BY THE ENU MODEL (35).
L.C. Garcia de Andrade. ON STRING COSMOLOGY AND DE SITTER INFLATION WITH MASSLESS DILATONS AND DYNAMICAL TORSION (38).
C.A. de Souza Lima Jr. and L.C. Garcia de Andrade. GROWTH AND DECAY OF INGOMOGENEITIES IN NEWTONIAN COSMOLOGY: SPIN EFFECTS (39).
L.C. Garcia de Andrade and C. Sivaram. TORSION GRAVITATION AHARONOV-BOHM EFFECT (42).
L.C. Garcia de Andrade. TORSION GRAVITY EFFECTS ON CHARGED-PARTICLE AND NEUTRON INTERFEROMETERS (45).
Rasulkhozha S. Shara ddinov. ON THE COMPOUND STRUCTURES OF THE NEUTRINO MASS AND CHARGE (47).
Vol. 3 (2002), No. 2 (12)
L.P. Fominskiy. TO CONCEPT OF AN INTERVAL OR BASIC MISTAKE OF THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY (49).
N.A. Zhuck. THE NEW STATIONARY MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE. COMPARISON TO THE FACTS (55). N.A. Zhuck. THE EARTH AS THE GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE RESONATOR (67). L.V. OGFruEnLsEkCayTaR,OVM.VA.GINsaEkTeIvSiMtcOh,FVT.HAE. SEU RmFoAvC, EI.LNO. VGEaRvrLiAloYvE, RMW.SI.TGHeGraEsOimPHovY.SIINCTAELRACNODMAMSUTNROIC-ATION
PHYSICAL PROCESSIS (69). Anirudh Pradhan and Hare Ram Pandey. PLANE SYMMETRIC COSMOLOGICAL MODELS IN THE
PRESENCE OF ZERO-MASS SCALAR FIELDS (76).
Spacetime & Substance, Vol. 3, No. 5 (15), 2002
239
V.L. TKHaElaOshRnYikOoFv.GCROANVSITTARTAIIONNTS(8O1)N. THE COSMOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN THE RELATIVISTIC Valer(i8V4).. Dvoeglazov. SOME MATHEMATICAL BASES FOR NON-COMMYTATIVE FIELD THEORIES Rasulkhozha S. Shara ddinov. ON THE ANOMALOUS STRUCTURES OF THE VECTOR LEPTONIC
CURRENTS (86). Sutapa Ghosh and Somenath Chakrabarty. CAN THERE BE -EQUILIBRATED QUARK MATTER AT
THE CORE OF A COMPACT NEWBORN NEWTRON STAR WITH MODERATELY STRONG MAGNETIC FIELD? (88). Jorge Guala-Valverde. FEYNMAN LECTURES, A-FIELD AND RELATIVITY IN ROTATIONS (94).
Vol. 3 (2002), No. 3 (13)
Scott M. Hitchcock. THE CREATION OF TIME FROM SUBSTANCE AND SPACE (97). Vasile Mioc. SYMMETRIES OF THE GRAVITATIONAL N-BODY PROBLEM (104). Alex M. Chepick. THE CALCULATION OF THE INDISPENSABLE ACCURACY OF THE MEASURING
OF AN EM-WAVE'S ENERGY (108). Valery P. Dmitriyev. GRAVITATION AND ELECTROMAGNETISM (114). Miroslav Sukenik and Jozef Sima. ELECTROMAGNETIC INFLUENCE ON GRAVITATIONAL MASS {
THEORY, EXPERIMENTS AND MECHANISM OF THE SOLAR CORONA HEATING (118). A.M. Chepick. SUPREMUM OF THE INTERACTION SPEED OF THE MATTER (122). Valer(i1V25.).Dvoeglazov. SOME MATHEMATICAL BASES FOR NON-COMMYTATIVE FIELD THEORIES Afsar Abbas. TO QUANTIZE OR NOT TO QUANTIZE GRAVITY? (127). Angelo Loinger. RELATIVISTIC MOTIONS (129). Antonio Alfonso-Faus. QUANTUM GRAVITY AND GENERAL RELATIVITY CONSISTENT WITH A DE-
CREASING SPEED OF LIGHT AND MACH'S PRINCIPLE (130). RasuMlkAhoGzNhEaTSI.CSNhAaTraU RdEdi(n1o3v2)..THE UNITED THEORY OF THE TWO FIELDS OF THE ELECTRIC AND Rasulkhozha S. Shara ddinov. ON THE TYPE OF THE SPIN POLARIZATION DEPENDENCE OF THE
NEUTRINO MASS AND CHARGE (134). Jorge Guala-Valverde. ON THE ELECTRODYNAMICS OF SPINNING MAGNETS (140).
Vol. 3 (2002), No. 4 (14)
Angelo Loinger. GRAVITY AND MOTION (145). Savita Gehlaut, A. Mukherjee, S. Mahajan and D. Lohiya. A \FREELY COASTING" UNIVERSE (152). Fangpei Chen. THE RESTUDY ON THE DEBATE BETWEEN EINSTEIN AND LEVI-CIVITA AND THE
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS (161).
240
Contents of issues for 2002 year
A. PrCaAdLhaMnOaDnEdLOS-.RPE. VPIaSnIdTeEyDc.(1C6O9)N. FORMALLY FLAT SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC COSMOLOGIR. Runi, M. Lattanzi, C. Sigismondi and G. Vereshchagin. CHEMICAL POTENTIAL OF MASSIVE
NEUTRINOS IN AN EXPANDING UNIVERSE (174). D.L. Khokhlov. SPACE-TIME IN THE CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF
QUANTUM MECHANICS (179). A.M. Chepick. MEASUREMENTS WILL SHOW DECREASING OF THE HUBBLE CONSTANT (181). A.M. Chepick. WHY THE HUBBLE PARAMETER GROWS UP? (183). Fabio R. Fernandez. MORE ON FEYNMAN LECTURES BY J. GUALA-VALVERDE (184). JorgeNGOTuaBlaE-VAaDlvDeIrTdIeV,EP?e(d1r8o6)M. azzoni and Cristina N. Gagliardo. WHY HOMOPOLAR DEVICES CANDISCUSSION (188). 2ND GRAVITATION CONFERENCE IN KHARKIV (190).
Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15)
Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION FORMATION THROUGH THE THERMAL RADIATION OF METAGALAXY STARS (193).
Yu.M. Galaev. THE MEASURING OF ETHER-DRIFT VELOCITY AND KINEMATIC ETHER VISCOSITY WITHIN OPTICAL WAVES BAND (207).
S.N. Arteha. ON THE BASIS FOR GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORY (225). N.A. Zhuck. ANOMALIES IN MOVEMENT OF \PIONEER 10/11" AND THEIR EXPLANATION (234). Ricardo Achilles. AGAIN ON THE GUALA-VALVERDE HOMOPOLAR-INDUCTION EXPERIMENTS
(235). Spacetime & Substance. Contents of issues for 2002 year (238).
Spacetime & Substance International Physical Journal
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References
[1] F.W. Stecker, K.J. Frost, Nature, 245, 270 (1973).
[2] V.A. Brumberg, \Relativistic Celestial Mechanics", Nauka, Moskow, 1972 (in Russian).
[3]
S.W. Hawking, in: \General Relativity. Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, 1979.
An
Einstein
Centenary
Sutvey",
eds.
S.W.
Hawking
and
W.
Israel,
Cambr.
Read the Journal before sending a manuscript!
Spacetime & Substance
Volume 3, No. 5 (15), 2002
CONTENTS
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE
. . BACKGROUND RADIATION
OF METAGALAXY STARS
.F.O. .R.M. .A.T. .I.O.N. .
.T.H.R. .O.U. .G.H. .
.T.H. .E.
.T.H. .E.R. .M. .A.L.
.R. .A.D. .IA. .T.I.O.N193
Yu.M. Galaev. THE MEASURING OF
ETHER VISCOSITY WITHIN OPTICAL
EWTAHVEERS-DBARNIFDT.V. .E.L.O. .C.I.T. Y. .
.A.N. .D.
.K. I.N. .E.M. .A.T. .IC207
S.N. Arteha. ON THE BASIS FOR GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
N.A. Zhuck.
PLANATION
.
.A. N. .O. M. .A. .L.I.E.S.
.I.N.
.M. .O.V. .E.M. .E.N. .T.
.O. .F.
.\.P.I.O.N. .E.E. .R.
.1.0./.1.1.".
.A.N. .D.
.T.H. .E.I.R. .
E. .X2-34
REXicPaErdRoIMAEcNhTilSle.s.. . .A.G. .A.I.N. .O. .N. .T. .H.E. .G. .U.A. .L.A. .-V. .A.L.V. .E.R.D. .E. .H. .O.M. .O.P. .O.L. .A.R. -.I.N.D. .U.C. .T.I.O. N235
Spacetime & Substance. Contents of issues for 2002 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238