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+Force on an Asymmetric Capacitor
+By Thomas B. Bahder and Christian Fazi
+ARL-TR-3005 June 2003
+Best Available Copy
+Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 20030822 162
+
+
+Best Ccp
+NOTICES
+Disclaimers
+The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official
+Department of the Army position, unless so designated by other authorized documents.
+Citation of manufacturers' or trade names does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of the use thereof.
+
+
+Army Research Laboratory
+Adelphi, MD 20783-1197
+ARL-TR-3005 June 2003
+Force on an Asymmetric Capacitor
+Thomas B. Bahder and Christian Fazi Sensors and Electron Devices Directorate, ARL
+Best Available Copy
+Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
+
+
+REPOT DCUMNATGAETFOorNm Approved
+REPOT DCUMNTATON
+AGEOMB No. 0704-0188
+Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average I hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing the burden, to Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (0704-0188), 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. PLEASE DO NOT RETURN YOUR FORM TO THE ABOVE ADDRESS. 1. REPORT DATE (DD-MM-YYYY) 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED (From - To) June 2003 1Final August 2002-December 2002 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER Force on an Asymmetric Capacitor
+5b. GRANT NUMBER
+5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 62705A
+6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER Thomas B. Bahder and Christian Fazi 3NE6BC
+Se. TASK NUMBER
+5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER
+7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION U.S. Army Research Laboratory REPORT NUMBER Attn: AMSRL-SE-EE ARL-TR-3005 2800 Powder Mill Road Adelphi, MD 20783-1197
+9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORIMONITOR'S ACRONYM(S)
+U.S. Army Research Laboratory 2800 Powder Mill Road 11. SPONSORIMONITOR'S REPORT Adelphi, MD 20783-1197 NUMBER(S)
+12. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Approved for public release; distribution unlimited
+13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES AMS Code 622705.H94 DA Project AH94 14. ABSTRACT
+When a high voltage (-30 kV) is applied to a capacitor whose electrodes have different physical dimensions, the capacitor experiences a net force toward the smaller electrode (Biefeld-Brown effect). We have verified this effect by building four capacitors of different shapes. The effect may have applications to vehicle propulsion and dielectric pumps. We review the history of this effect briefly through the history of patents by Thomas Townsend Brown. At present, the physical basis for the Biefeld-Brown effect is not understood. The order of magnitude of the net force on the asymmetric capacitor is estimated assuming two different mechanisms of charge conduction between its electrodes: ballistic ionic wind and ionic drift. The calculations indicate that ionic wind is at least 3 orders of magnitude too small to explain the magnitude of the observed force on the capacitor. The ionic drift transport assumption leads to the correct order of magnitude for the force,
+however, it is difficult to see how ionic drift enters into the theory. Finally, we present a detailed thermodynamic treatment of the net force on an asymmetric capacitor. In the future, to understand this effect, a detailed theoretical model must be constructed that takes into account plasma effects: ionization of gas (or air) in the high electric field region, charge transport, and resulting dynamic forces on the electrodes. The next series of experiments should determine whether the effect occurs in vacuum, and a careful study should be carried out to determine the dependence of the observed force on gas pressure, gas species and applied voltage.
+15. SUBJECT TERMS
+Electrostatic propulsion, capacitor, high voltage, dielectric, ion propulsion, Bieheld-Brown effect, thermodynamics, force, electric
+17. LIMITATION 18. NUMBER 19a. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE PERSON 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: OF ABSTRACT OF PAGES Thomas B. Bahder
+a. REPORT b. ABSTRACT c. THIS PAGE 19b. TELEPHONE NUMBER (Include areacode) UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UL 301-394-2044
+Standard Form 298 (Rev. 8/98) Prescribed by ANSI Std, Z39.18
+Best Available Copy
+
+
+Contents
+List of Figures iv
+Acknowledgments v
+1. Introduction 1
+2. Biefeld-Brown Effect 1
+3. Preliminary Experiments at ARL 7
+4. Previously Proposed Explanations for the Biefeld-Brown Force 11
+4.1 Ionic Wind: Force Too Small .................................................................................... 12
+4.2 The Ion Drift Picture: Scaling Theory of Force ...................................................... 13
+5. Thermodynamic Analysis of the Biefeld-Brown Force 18
+6. Summary and Suggested Future Work 22
+7. References 24
+Appendix A. Short Patent History Dealing With Asymmetric Capacitors 27
+Appendix B. Force on Asymmetric Capacitor in Vacuum 29
+Best Available Copy
+111,i
+
+
+List of Figures
+Figure 1. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown British Patent No. 300,311 entitled "Method of and Apparatus or Machine for Producing Force or Motion,"issued on
+November 15, 1928 ........................................................................................................... 2
+Figure 2. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 entitled
+"Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on August 16, 1960 ...................................................... 2
+Figure 3. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 entitled
+"Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on August 16, 1960 ...................................................... 4
+Figure 4. Figure excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 entitled
+"Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on August 16, 1960 ...................................................... 5
+Figure 5. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 3,018,394 entitled
+"Electrokinetic Transducer," issued on January 23, 1962 ................................................... 6 Figure 6. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown Patent No. 3,187,206, entitled,
+"Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on June 1, 1965 ............................................................. 6
+Figure 7. Our first attempt at making an asymmetric capacitor (a "lifter"), according to the specifications given by J. Naudin (1) on Internet Web site ........... 8
+Figure 8. The second attempt at making a lighter asymmetric capacitor ................................... 8
+Figure 9. Flat-shaped (or wing-shaped) asymmetric capacitor used to test whether closed
+electrode geometry is needed ............................................................................................... 9
+Figure 10. The capacitor consisting of a single wire. No bias applied ................................... 10
+Figure 11. The wire capacitor showing displacement from the vertical (35 kV applied) ...... 11
+Figure 12. Schematic diagram of the side view of electric field for the asymmetric capacitor
+in Figure 9 ................................................................................................................................ 14
+iv
+
+
+Acknowledgments
+T. Bahder thanks W. C. McCorkle, Director of U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command, for the suggestion to look at the physics responsible for the net force on an asymmetric capacitor. The authors wish to thank Jean-Louis Naudin (JLN Labs) for his permission to reproduce the letter of Thomas Townsend Brown in Appendix B. T. Bahder is grateful for personal correspondence with Jean-Louis Naudin (JLN Labs).
+v
+
+
+INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.
+vi
+
+
+1. Introduction
+Recently, there is a great deal of interest in the Biefeld-Brown effect, i.e., when high voltage (-30 kV) is applied to the electrodes of an asymmetric capacitor, a net force is observed on the capacitor. By asymmetric, we mean that the physical dimensions of the two electrodes are different, i.e., one electrode is large and the other small. According to the classical BiefeldBrown effect (see Brown's original 1960, 1962, and 1965 patents cited in Appendix A, and a partial reproduction in section 2), the largest force on the capacitor is in a direction from the negative (larger) electrode toward the positive (smaller) electrode. Today, there are numerous demonstrations ofthis effect on the Internet in devices called "lifters," which show that the force on the capacitor exceeds its weight (1). In fact, these experiments indicate that there is a force on the capacitor independent of polarity of applied voltage. In the future, the Biefeld-Brown effect may have application to aircraft or vehicle propulsion, with no moving parts. At the present time, there is no accepted detailed theory to explain this effect, and hence the potential of this effect for applications is unknown. The authors are aware of only two reports (2) and theoretical papers that address such issues (3, 4).
+In section 2, we describe the history ofthe Biefeld-Brown effect. The effect of a net force on an asymmetric capacitor is so surprising that we carried out preliminary simple experiments at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) to verify that the effect is real. The results of these experiments are described in section 3. Section 4 contains estimates ofthe force on the capacitor for the case of ballistic ionic wind and drift of carriers across the capacitor's gap between electrodes. In section 5, we present a detailed thermodynamic treatment ofthe force on an asymmetric capacitor, assuming that a nonlinear dielectric fluid fills the region between capacitor electrodes. Section 6 is a summary and recommendation for future experimental and theoretical work.
+2. Biefeld-Brown Effect
+During the 1920s, Thomas Townsend Brown was experimenting with an x-ray tube known as a "Coolidge tube," which was invented in 1913 by the American physical chemist William D. Coolidge. Brown found that the Coolidge tube exhibited a net force (a thrust) when it was turned on. He believed that he had discovered a new principle of electromagnetism and gravity. Brown applied for a British patent on April 15, 1927, which was issued on November 15, 1928 as Patent No. 300,311, entitled, "Method ofProducing Force or Motion." The patent and its figures clearly
+1
+
+
+describe Brown's early work on forces on asymmetric capacitors, although the electromagnetic concepts are mixed with gravitational concepts (Figure 1).
+This invention relates to a method of
+controlling gravitation and for deriving
+power therefrom, and to a method of prndueing linear force or motion. The
+method is fundamentally electrical.
+Figure 1. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown British Patent No. 300,311 entitled "Method of and Apparatus or Machine for Producing Force or Motion," issued on November 15, 1928.
+The discovery ofthe Biefeld-Brown effect is generally credited to Thomas Townsend Brown. However, it is also named in honor of Brown's mentor, Dr. Paul Alfred Biefeld, a professor of physics and astronomy at Denison University in Granville, Ohio, where Brown was a laboratory assistant in electronics in the Department of Physics. During the 1920s, Biefeld and Brown together experimented on capacitors.
+In order to find a technical description of the Biefeld-Brown effect, we performed a search of the standard article literature and found no references to this effect. It is prudent to ask whether this effect is real or rumor. On the other hand, the Internet is full of discussions and references to this effect, including citations of patents issued (1), see also Appendix A. In fact, patents seem to be the only official publications that describe this effect.
+On July 3,1957, Brown filed another patent entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus," and was issued a U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 on August 16, 1960. The effect in this patent is described more lucidly than his previous patent No. 300,311, of November 15, 1928. In this 1960 patent, entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus," Brown makes no reference to gravitational effects (Figure 2).
+This invention wias disclosed and described in my appli
+cation Serial No. 293,465, filed June 13, 1952, which ap.
+plication has become abandoned. However, refercnce
+may be made 40 this application for the purpose of com
+pleting the disclosure set forth below.
+The invention utilizes a heretofore unknown electrokinetic phenomenon which I have discovered; namely,
+that when a pair of electrodes of appropriate form are
+held in a certain fl'ed spavecd relation to each other and
+immersed in a dielectric medium and then oppositely
+charged to an appropriate degree, a force is produced
+tending to move the pair of electrodes through the me
+dium. The invention is concerned primarily with ccrtain
+apparatus for utilizing such phenomenon in various man
+nets to be described,
+Figure 2. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on August 16, 1960.
+2 Best Available Copy
+
+
+The claims, as well as the drawings in this patent, clearly show that Brown had conceived that the force developed on an asymmetrical capacitor could be used for vehicle propulsion. His drawings in this patent are strikingly similar to some of the capacitors designs on the Internet today. In this 1960 patent, entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus," Brown gives the clearest explanation of the physics of the Biefeld-Brown effect. Brown makes several important statements, including:
+"*the greatest force on the capacitor is created when the small electrode is positive,
+"•the effect occurs in a dielectric medium (air),
+"*the effect can be used for vehicle propulsion or as a pump of dielectric fluid,
+"•Brown's understanding of the effect, in terms of ionic motion, and
+"*the detailed physics of the effect is not understood.
+In the following, we reproduce Brown's first two figures and partial text explaining the effect (Figures 3 and 4).
+Soon after Brown's 1957 filing for the patent previously mentioned, on May 12, 1958, A.H. Bahnson Jr. filed for an improved patent entitled "Electrical Thrust Producing Device," which was granted a U.S. Patent No. 2,9587,90 on November 1, 1960.
+3
+
+
+2,949,650
+34
+1 have discovered that when apparatus of the character electrodes to be operated at potentials above 125 kv. nay
+just described is Immersed in a dielectric medium, as be hollow pipes or rods having a diameter of V4 to for example, the ordinary air of the atmosphere, there is inch.
+produced a force tending to move the entire assembly In Figure 3, I have illustrated the manner in which
+thiough the medium, and this force is applied in such 5 a plurality of assemblies, such as ore shown in Figure 1,
+direction as to tend to move the body 20 toward the may be interconnected for joint operation. As may be leading clectrode 21. This force produces relative mo- seen from Figure 3, a plurality of such assemblies are
+lion between the apparatus and the surrounding fluid di- placed in spaced side-by-side relation. They may be electric. Thus, if the apparatus Is held in a fixed post- held fixed in such spaced relation through the use of lion, the dielectric medium is caused to move past the 10 a plurality of tie rods 12 and interposed upacets (nsot
+apparatus and to this extent the apparatus may be con- shown) placed between adjacent plates 20. The assemsidered as analogous to a pump or fan. Conversely, bly of plates 20 may be electrically interconnected by a
+if the apparatus is free to move, the relative motion be- bus bar or similar conductor 29 to which the negative tween the medium and the apparatus results in a forward lead 25 is connected. In a similar way, the plurality of
+motion of the apparatus, and it is thus seen that the 15 positive leading electrodes 21 may be held in appropri. apparatus is a self-propulsive device. ately spaced relation to each other by fastening their ends
+While the phenomenon just described has been ob- to pairs of bus bars 30 and 31, to the latter of which
+served and its existence confirmed -by repeated experi- the positive lead 26 is connected. The assembly of lead.
+ment, the principles involved ATe not completely under- log electrodes 21 may he held in spaced relation to the stood. It has been determined that the greatest forces 20 assembly of body members 20 by an appropriate arrange.
+are developed when the leading electrode is made ment of the supports 22. positive with respect to the body 20, and it is accord- In Figure 4, I have illustrated diagrammatically an ingly thought that In the immediate vicinity of the arrangement of parts for producing a reversible action;
+electrode 21 where the potential gradient is very high, that is, permitting the direction of the propulsive force free electrons are stripped off of the atoms and molecules 25 to he reversed. The apparatus Is similar to that shown of the surrounding medium. These electrons migrate in Figure 1. differing therefrom in utiizing a pair of
+to the positive electrode 21 where they are collected, leading electrodes 21t and Z1r spaced by means of
+This removal of free electrons leaves the respective atoms spacers 12 from the front and rear edges 231 and 23r
+and molecules positively charged and such charged atoms of the body member 20 in a manner similar to that de
+and molecules are accordingly repelled from the pose- 20 scribed with reference to the supports 22 in Figure 1.
+rive electrode 21 and attracted toward the negative The source 24 of high voltage electrical potential has
+electrode 20. The paths of movement of these positively its negative terminal connected to the body 20 as by
+charged particles appear to be of the nature represented means of the aforementioned conductor 25. The positive
+by the lines 27 in Figure 2- terminal is connected as by means of the conductor 26 It appears that upon reaching or closely approaching 30 to the blade 27 of a single-pole, double-throw switch,
+the surface of the body 20, the positively charged atoms serving in one position to connect the conductor 26 to a
+and molecules have their positive charges neutralized Conductor 26f which is in turn connected to the forward
+by the capture of electrons from the body 20 and in electrode 21f and arranged in Its opposite position to many cases, it may be that excess electrons are captured connect the conductor 26 to a conductor 26r which is in whereby to give such atoms and molecules a negative 40 turn connected to the reverse electrode 21r. charge so that they are actually repelled from the It will be seen that with the switch 27 in the post
+body 20. tion shown in Figure 4, the apparatus will operate In the It will be appreciated that the mass of each of the manner described in connection with Figure 1, causing individual electrons is approximately one two-thousandtbs the assembly to move to the left as viewed in Figure 4.
+the mass of the hydrogen atom and is accordingly negligi- 45 By throwing the switch 27 to the opposite position, the bie as compared with the mass of the atoms and molecules direction of the forces produced are reversed and the
+of the medium from which they are taken. The principal device isoves to the right as viewed In Figure 4. forces Involved therefore are the forces involved in mov- In Figure 5, 1 have illustrated the principles of the in
+ing the charged atoms and molecules from the region vention as embodied in a simple form of mobile vehicle. of the positive electrode 21 to and beyond the negatively aD This device includes a body member 50 which is prefer
+charged body 20. The force so exerted by the system ably of the form of a circular disc somewhat thicker
+on those atoms and molecules not only produces a flow in its center than at its edges. The disc 50 constitutes of the medium relative to the apparatus, but, of course, one of the electrodes and is the equivalent of the body
+results in a like force on the system tending to move the member 20 referred to in connection with Figure 1. A entire system in the opposite direction; thAt is, to the left 55 leading electrode 51 in the form, of a wire or similar
+as viewed in Figure I of the drawing, tmall diameter conductor is supported from the body
+The above suggested explanation of the mode of opera- 50 by a plurality of insulating supports 52 in uniform lion of the device is supported by observation of the spaced parallel relation to a leading edge portion S of
+fact that the dimensions and potentials utilized must be the body 50. A skirt or simtilar fairing 54 -may be car
+adjusted to produce the required electric field and the 60 ricd by the body 50 to round out the entire structura so resulting propulsive force- Actually I have found that as to provide a device which is substantially circular in
+the potential gradient must be below that value required plan. A source of high voltage electrical potential 55 is
+to produce a visible corona since corona is objection- provided with its negative terminal connected as indicated able inasmuch as It represents losscs through the radia- at 56 to the body 50 and its positive terminal connected
+lion of heat, light and molecular charges in the medium* 65 as indicated at 57 to the leading electrode 51.
+My experiments have indicated that the electrode 21 Tlhe device operates in the same manner as the ap
+may be of small diameter for the lower voltage ranges, paratus shown in Figure 1 to produce a force tending to
+i.e. below 125 kv. while above this voltage, rod or hollow move the entire assembly through the surrounding me
+pipe electrodes are preferred. These large electrodes dium to the left as viewed in Figure 5 of the drawing, are preferred for the higher voltages since sharp points 70 Referring now to Figure 6, there is depicted an illus
+or edges are eliminated which at these elevated potentials trative embodiment of this invention in which, a pair of would produce losses thus diminishing the thrust. For mobile vehicles, such as depicted in Figure 5, are shown
+example, electrodes to be operated at potentials below suspended from the terminals of arm 40, which arm 125 kv. may be made from small gauge wire only large is supported at its midpoint 'by a vertical column 41. enough to provide the required mechanical rigidity while 76 High voltage source 55 is shown connected through wires
+Figure 3. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on August 16, 1960.
+4 Best Available Copy
+
+
+Aug. 16, 1960 T,T. BROWN 2,949,550
+riles July 3, 19,47 2 Shoot.-Sheet I
+FIG. I FIG,
+255
+Figure 4. Figure excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 2,949,550 entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on
+August 16, 1960.
+On July 3, 1957, Brown filed another patent (granted on January 23, 1962, as U.S. Patent No. 3,018,394) for an "Electrokinetic Transducer." This patent deals with the inverse effect, i.e., when a dielectric medium is made to move between high voltage electrodes, there is a change in the voltage on the electrodes. (This is reminiscent of Faraday's law of induction.) Quoting from the 1962 patent by Thomas Townsend Brown (Figure 5):
+Until this time, the net force on an asymmetric capacitor was reported as occurring when the capacitor was in a dielectric medium. On May 9, 1958, Brown filed for another patent (improving upon his previous work) entitled "Electrokinetic Apparatus." The patent was issued on June 1, 1965 as Patent No. 3,187,206. The significance of this new patent is that it describes the existence of a net force on the asymmetric capacitor as occurring even in vacuum. Brown states that, "The propelling force however is not reduced to zero when all environmental bodies are removed beyond the apparent effective range of the electric field." Here is a quote from the patent (Figure 6).
+st Available Copy
+5
+
+
+Best Available Copy
+'his invention utilizes heretofore unknown electrokinetic phenomenon which I have discovered, namely that when pairs of electrodes of appropriate form are held in a certain fixed spacial relationship to each other and im
+mersed in a dielectric medium and then oppositely charged to an appropriate degree, a force is produced tending to move the surrounding dielectric with respect to the pair of electrodes. I have also discovered that if the dielectric
+Jmuedium is moved relative to the pahib uf elelti odes by an external mechanical force, a variation in the potential of the electrodes results which variation corresponds to the
+variations in the applied mechanical force. Accordingly, it is an object of this invention to provide
+a method and apparatus for converting the energy of an
+electrical potential directly into a mechanical force suitable for causing relative motion between a structure and the surrounding medium.
+Figure 5. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown U.S. Patent No. 3,018,394 entitled "Electrokinetic Transducer," issued on January 23, 1962.
+3,187,206
+ELECTROIKtNETIC APPARATUS
+Thomas Townsend Brown, Walkerlown, N.C., assignor,
+by mesne assignments, to Electroldnetics, Inc., a cor
+poration of Pennsylvania
+Filed May 9, 1958, S&r. No. 734,342
+23 Claims. (Cl. 310-5)
+This invention relates to an electrical device for produc
+ing thrust by the direct operation of electrical fields. I have discovcied that a Shaped electrical field may be
+employed to propel a device relative to its surroundings In
+a manner which is both novel and useful. Mechanical
+forces are created which move the device continuously in
+ore direction while the nimasses making up the cnvironment
+move in the opposite direction. When the device is operated in a dielectric fluid me
+dium, such as air, the forces of reaction appear to be
+present in that medium as well as on all solid material
+bodies making up the physical environment.
+In a vacuum, the reaction forces appear on the solid
+environmental bodies, such as the walls of the vacuum chamber. The propelling force however is not reduced
+to zero when all environmental bodies arc removed beyond the apparent effective range of the electrical field.
+By attaching a pair of electrodes to opposite ends of a dielectric member and connecting a source of high elec
+trostatic potential to these electrodes, a force is produced
+in the direction of one electrode provided thnt electrode is of such configuration to cause the lines-of-force to con
+verge steeply upon the other electrode. The force, there
+fore, is in a direction from the region of high flux density toward the region of low flux density, generally in the di
+rection thrmogh the axis of the electrodcs. The thrust
+produced by such a device is present if the electrostatic 3,
+field gradient between the two electrodes is non-linear.
+This non-linearity of gradient may result from a differ
+ence in the configuration of the electrodes, from the elec
+trical potential andlor polarity of adjacent bodies, from
+the shape of the dielectric member, from a gradient in the 40
+density, electric conductivity, electric perm'ittivity and
+inanetic permeability of the dielectric member or a com
+bination of these factors.
+Figure 6. Excerpt from Thomas Townsend Brown Patent No. 3,187,206, entitled, "Electrokinetic Apparatus," issued on June 1, 1965.
+6
+
+
+In this patent, Brown reports that the asymmetric capacitor does show a net force, even in vacuum. However, at present, there is little experimental evidence, except for two reports (2), which do not explain the origin of the observed force and two theoretical papers (3, 4). If the Biefeld-Brown effect is to be understood on a firm basis, it is imperative to determine whether the effect occurs in vacuum. Enclosed in Appendix B, is Bahder's email correspondence with J. Naudin, where Naudin quotes from a letter by Thomas Townsend Brown, who discusses the
+effect in vacuum.
+The main question to be answered is as follows: what is the physical mechanism that is responsible for the net force on an asymmetric capacitor? The answer to this question may depend on whether the asymmetric capacitor is in a polarizable medium (such as air), or in vacuum. However, to date, the physical mechanism is unknown, and until it is understood, it will be impossible to determine its potential for practical applications.
+3. Preliminary Experiments at ARL
+The Biefeld-Brown effect is reported in many places on the Internet; however, as previously mentioned, only two papers exist (3, 4). Therefore, we decided to verify that the effect was real. The authors have fabricated three simple asymmetric capacitors, using the designs reported on the Internet (1). In all three cases, we have verified that a net force is exerted on the capacitors when a high DC voltage is applied to the electrodes. The three asymmetric capacitors that we tested had different geometries, but they all had the common feature that one electrode was thin and the other very wide (asymmetric dimensions). Also, a suspended wire, representing a capacitor with the second electrode at infinity, showed lift.
+Our first model was made by Tom Bahder, and was triangular in shape, which is a typical construction reported on the Internet (Figure 7). One electrode is made from thin 38-gauge (0.005-mil) wire, and the other electrode is made from ordinary aluminum foil. The capacitor is -20 cm on a side, the foil sides are 20 x 4 cm, and the distance ofthe top of the foil to the thin wire electrode is 3 cm. The foil and wire are supported by a balsa wood frame, so that the whole capacitor is very light, -5 g. Initially, we made the balsa wood frame too heavy (capacitor weight -7 g), and later we cut away much of the frame to lighten the construction to -5 g. We found that in order to demonstrate the lifting effect, the capacitor must be made of minimum weight. (Typical weights reported on the Internet for the design in Figure 7 are 2.3 - 4 g.)
+7
+
+
+Figure 7. Our first attempt at making an asymmetric capacitor (a "lifter"), according to the specifications given by J. Naudin (1) on Internet Web site .
+When -37 kV was applied to the capacitor in Figure 7, the current was -1.5 mA. The capacitor lifted off its resting surface. However, this capacitor was not a vigorous flier, as reported by
+others on the Internet. One problem that occurred was arcing from the thin wire electrode to the foil. The thin wire electrode was too close to the foil. We have found that arcing reduces the force developed on the capacitor. Also, compared to other constructions, ours was too heavy, 5 g. We found that a ground plane beneath the capacitor is not essential for the lifting force to exceed the capacitor's weight.
+Consequently, we decided to make a second version of an asymmetric capacitor, using a Styrofoam lunch box and plastic drinking straws from the ARL cafeteria (Figure 8). The capacitor had a square geometry, 18 x 20 cm. The distance of the thin wire (38 gauge) to the foil was adjustable, and we found that making a 6-cm gap resulted in little arcing. When 30 kV was applied, the capacitor drew -1.5 mA, and hovered vigorously above the floor.
+Figure 8. The second attempt at making a lighter asymmetric capacitor.
+A question occurred: Is the toroidal (closed circular) geometry of the capacitor electrodes essential to the lifting effect that we have observed? Consequently, Bahder made a flat-shaped, or wing-shaped, capacitor as shown in Figure 9. This capacitor was made from two (red) plastic coffee stirrers and a (clear) plastic drinking straw to support the aluminum foil. The significance
+8
+
+
+Figure 9. Flat-shaped (or wing-shaped) asymmetric capacitor used to test whether closed electrode geometry is needed.
+of the clear plastic straw was that the foil could be wrapped over it, thereby avoiding sharp foil edges that would lead to corona discharge or arcing. The dimensions of the foil on this capacitor were 20 x 4 cm, as shown in Figure 9. The distance between the thin wire electrode (38-gauge wire) and edge of the foil was 6.3 cm. This capacitor showed a net force on it when -30 kV was applied, drawing -500 ptA. The force on this capacitor greatly exceeded its weight, so much so that it would vigorously fly into the air when the voltage was increased from zero. Therefore, we have concluded that the closed geometry ofthe electrodes is not a factor in the net force on an asymmetric capacitor. Furthermore, the force on the capacitor always appeared in the direction toward the small electrode-independent of the orientation of the capacitor with respect to the plane of the Earth's surface. The significance ofthis observation is that the force has nothing to do with the gravitational field of the Earth and nothing to do with the electric potential of the Earth's atmosphere. (There are numerous claims on the Internet that asymmetric capacitors are antigravity devices, or devices that demonstrate that there is an interaction of gravity with electric phenomena.)
+The thin wire electrode must be at a sufficient distance away from the foil so that arcing does not occur from the thin wire electrode to the foil at the operating voltage. In fact, in our first model, shown in Figure 7, the 3-cm gap from the top of the foil to the thin wire electrode was not sufficiently large, and significant arcing occurred. We have found that when arcing occurs, there is little net force on the capacitor. An essential part of the design of the capacitor is that the edges of the foil, nearest to the thin wire, must be rounded (over the supporting balsa wood, or plastic straw, frame) to prevent arcing or corona discharge at sharp foil edges (which are closest to the thin wire). The capacitor in Figure 7 showed improved lift when rounded foil was put over the foil electrode closest to the thin wire, thereby smoothing-over the sharp foil edges. Physically, this means that the radius of curvature of the foil nearest to the small wire electrode was made larger, creating a greater asymmetry in radii of curvature of the two electrodes.
+9
+
+
+When operated in air, the asymmetric capacitors exhibit a net force toward the smaller conductor, and in all three capacitors, we found that this force is independent ofthe direct current (DC) voltage polarity.
+The detailed shape ofthe capacitor seems immaterial, as long as there is a large asymmetry between the characteristic size of the two electrodes.
+The simplest capacitor configuration consists of a suspended thin wire from the hot electrode of the high-voltage power supply, as shown in Figure 10. To observe the wire movement, a small piece of transparent tape was attached at the lower end ofthe thin wire. A suspended thin wire (-12 in length) also showed force with -35 kV and 1-mA current (Figure 9). From a vertical position, the wire lifted, as shown in Figure 11 by as much as 300, once the high voltage approached 35 kV. The usual air breakdown hissing sound ofthe other capacitors was heard when current reached -1 mA. Actually, the wire did not remain suspended, but oscillated back and forth -60' from vertical, and the hissing pitch followed the oscillation period with amplitude and frequency changes. Without the piece oftape at the end, the wire did not lift as much and the sound was considerably weaker. The piece oftape seems to increase the capacitance and or the air ionization. This suspended wire configuration can be viewed also as a capacitor surrounded by the ground system located several feet away (metallic benches, floor and ceiling). As in the other capacitor experiments, it also did not exhibit a polarity dependence.
+Figure 10. The capacitor consisting of a single wire. No bias applied.
+10
+
+
+Figure 11. The wire capacitor showing displacement from the vertical (35 kV applied).
+When the asymmetric capacitors have an applied DC voltage, and they are producing a net force in air, they all emit a peculiar hissing sound with pitch varying with the applied voltage. This sound is similar to static on a television or radioset when it is not tuned to a good channel. We believe that this sound may be a clue to the mechanism responsible for the net force.
+4. Previously Proposed Explanations for the Biefeld-Brown Force
+There are two proposed explanations for the Biefeld-Brown force. Both of these have been discussed on the Internet in various places. The first proposed scheme is that there exists an ionic wind in the high field region between the capacitor electrodes, and that this ionic wind causes the electrodes to move as a result of the momentum recoil. This scheme, described in section 4.1, leads to a force that is incorrect by at least 3 orders of magnitude compared to what is observed. (This scheme also assumes ballistic transport of charges in the atmosphere between electrodes of the capacitor, and it is known that instead drift current exists.)
+In section 4.2, we present the second scheme, which assumes that a drift current exists between the capacitor plates. This scheme is basically a scaling argument, and not a detailed treatment of the force. In this scheme, the order of magnitude of the force on an asymmetric capacitor is correct, however, this scheme is only a scaling theory. Finally, in section 5, we present our thermodynamic treatment of the force on an asymmetric capacitor.
+11
+
+
+4.1 Ionic Wind: Force Too Small
+The most common explanation for the net force on an asymmetric capacitor invokes ionic wind. Under a high-voltage DC bias, ions are thought to be accelerated by the high potential difference between electrodes, and the recoil force is observed on an asymmetric capacitor. A simple upper limit on the ion wind force shows that the ion wind effect is at least three orders of magnitude too small. Consider a capacitor that operates at voltage V. Charged particles of mass m, having charge q, such as electrons or (heavy) ions, are accelerated to a velocity v, having a kinetic energy
+- m2 = qV. (1)
+2
+The force exerted on an asymmetric capacitor is given by the rate of change of momentum
+I
+F =my -, (2)
+q
+where I is the current flowing through the capacitor gap, and we assume that all the ionic momentum, my, is transferred to the capacitor when the charged particles leave an electrode. Also, we assume that none of this momentum is captured at the other electrode. This is a gross over-estimation of the force due to ionic effects, so equation 2 is an upper limit to the ionic force.
+Solving equation 1for the velocity, and using it in equation 2 gives the upper limit on the force due to ionic wind
+F = (2.V I. (3)
+When the force F is equal to the weight of an object, Mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity, the force will lift a mass
+M=(2m 2 1 (4)
+Ifwe assume that electrons are the charged particles responsible for force of the ionic wind, then we must use mass m =9.1 x 10- 31 kg. Substituting typical experimental numbers into equation 4, we find that the ionic wind can lift a mass
+M =((2)(9.1 xIO -1kg)(4Ox103 Volt))2 1.OxO1-3 A =6.8x10-' gram. (5)
+1.6x1O"19 C lOm
+2
+12
+
+
+The typical weight of an asymmetric capacitor is on the order of 5 g, so this force is too small by 5 orders of magnitude.
+Another possibility is that heavy ions (from the air or stripped off the wire) are responsible for the ionic wind. As the heaviest ions around, assume that Cu is being stripped from the wire. Using Cu for the ions, the mass of the ions is 63.55 mp, where 63.55 is the atomic mass of Cu and mp is the mass of a proton. The weight that could be lifted with Cu ionic wind is then (upper limit):
+M = (2)(63.55) (1.67x1027kg)(40 x 103 Volts))' 10-3 A 0.002 gram. (6)
+1.6 x 10-19 C n102
+S2
+Again, this value is 3 orders of magnitude too small to account for lifting a capacitor with a mass of 3-5 g. Therefore, the ionic wind contribution is too small, by at least 3 orders of magnitude, to account for the observed force on an asymmetric capacitor.
+While the force of the ionic wind computed above is too small to explain the experiments in air, it should be noted that this effect will operate in vacuum, and may contribute to the overall force on a capacitor.
+4.2 The Ion Drift Picture: Scaling Theory of Force
+In the previous section, we computed an upper limit to the force on a capacitor due to ionic wind effects. Ionic wind is a ballistic flow of charges from one electrode to the other. Clearly the force due to ionic wind is at least three orders of magnitude too small to account for the observed force on an asymmetric capacitor (in air). There is another type of classical transport: drift of charge carriers in an electric field. In the case of drift, the carriers do not have ballistic trajectories, instead they experience collisions on their paths between electrodes. However, due to the presence of an electric field, the carriers have a net motion toward the opposite electrode. This type of transport picture is more accurate (than ballistic ionic wind) for a capacitor whose gap contains air. Drift transport is used by E. Barsoukov (5) to explain the net force on an asymmetric capacitor.
+The general picture of the physics is that the positive and negative electrodes of the capacitor are charged and that these charges experience different forces because the electric field surrounding the capacitor is nonuniform (Figure 12). The electric field surrounding the capacitor is created by the potential applied to the capacitor electrodes and partial ionization of air into positive ions and electrons. These charge carriers experience drift and diffusion in the resulting electric field.
+13
+
+
+FOIL
+Figure 12. Schematic diagram of the side view of electric field for the asymmetric capacitor in Figure 9.
+The battery supplies the energy that is dissipated by transport of carriers in the electric field. The electric field is particularly complicated because it is the result of a steady state: the interplay between the dynamics of ionization of the air in the high-field region surrounding the electrodes and charge transport (drift and diffusion of positive and negative carriers) in the resulting electric field.
+If the capacitor is surrounded by vacuum (rather than a dielectric, such as ions on air), the net force F on the asymmetric capacitor can be computed by the sum of two surface integrals, one over the surface of the positive electrode and one over the surface of the negative electrode (6):
+F=-I-e0 E2'ndS+ E2'ndS (7)
+where c0 is the permittivity of vacuum, E is the electric field normal to the conducting electrodes, S+and S_ are the positive and negative electrode surfaces of the capacitor and n is the outward normal to S+and S_. The integrals in equation 7 are done over closed surfaces S+and S_. As stated, the complexity of the calculation is contained in computing the electric field E. In section 5, we give an expression for the net force on the capacitor assuming that it is surrounded by a dielectric, such as air.
+14
+
+
+The electric field around the small wire electrode is much stronger than the field around the foil (see Figures 9 and 12). In our experiments, there is a big difference in the radii of curvature of the two capacitor electrodes: the thin wire electrode has a radius r, = 0.0025 in, and the edge of the foil has a radius of curvature of r2 = 0.125 in. This difference in curvature leads to an electric field with a strong gradient. The ratios of electric fields at the thin wire electrode to that at the rounded edge of the foil is inversely proportional to the square ofthe radii of curvatures: EI/E 2 = (rllr2)2 - 2500. However, the applied voltage is on the order of 30 kV, over a gap of 6 cm, so an
+electric field of magnitude 2500 x 30 kV/6 cm - 1 x 107 V would not be supported in air. It is
+cm clear that screening of the electric field is occurring due to the dielectric effects of charged air ions and electrons, as well as polarized air atoms. When a positive high voltage is applied to the thin wire electrode of the asymmetric capacitor, ionization of air atoms, such as nitrogen, probably occurs first near the thin wire electrode. The ionization of nitrogen atoms leads to free electrons and ions near the small electrode. The electron mobility is significantly larger for electrons than for nitrogen ions. This can be expected because the current density J= orE = n e v where o= n e2 z/m is the electrical conductivity, n is charge density, l is the scattering time, and the mean drift velocity v = p E. So the mobility behaves as p = e 7/m. Because electrons are 3 orders of magnitude more massive than ions, it is expected that they are correspondingly more mobile. Experimentally, it is found that the electron mobility in air at atmospheric pressure and electric field E = 104 Volt/cm is approximately (7) c2 cm
+= 620 (8)
+V olt •s
+The mobility of N2 ions in air is (8)
+c2
+= 2.5 Vc lm,2 (9)
+Volt -s
+Therefore, the physical picture is that in the high field region, the electrons, with their high mobility, are swept out by the electric field, toward the thin wire electrode leading to screening of the field. The massive (probably positive) ions are less mobile and are left behind in a plasma surrounding the thin wire electrode.
+A scaling argument can be made as follows: The lower foil conductor feels a force F of magnitude
+V
+F = , (10)
+where Q is the charge on the foil electrode, Vis the voltage between the capacitor conductors, and t is the length of the gap between thin wire electrode and foil. The charge Q and voltage V are quantities that are actually present when screening is taking place. The negative charge on
+15
+
+
+the foil, -Q, can be approximated in terms of the measured current, I - 1mA, by saying that all the carriers are swept out in a time t :
+I Q=Q
+t - -Q (11)
+where t is the time for carriers to move across the capacitor gap, f, if they are travelling at an average drift velocity, v. Eliminating the charge Q from equations 10 and 11, leads to an expression for the net force on the capacitor
+V
+F=I--. (12)
+In equation 12, the current I is a measured quantity, the voltage V is on the order of 30 kV, and the drift velocity for electrons is (7)
+ve = 6.2 x 106 cm (13)
+S
+Alternatively, the electron drift velocity, ve, can be expressed in terms of the mobility, p,,given in equation 8, and electric field, E. The net force on the asymmetric capacitor is then given by
+F=IV-=1 ,l (14)
+,uE pL
+where we again used E = V / f. Using the value of electron mobility in equation 8, the net force becomes
+F = 1 1 (_0-'A)(0.04 m) -6.4 x 10-4N. (15)
+V-m620 10-2 mm
+Volt .s)( cm)
+The force in equation 15 could lift a mass M
+F 6.4x10- 4 N
+M
+-- - 0.064 gram. (16)
+g 10
+s2
+The typical asymmetric capacitor has a mass that is 3 orders or magnitude greater. Consequently, drift of electrons cannot explain the observed force on the capacitor.
+An alternative to using the value of electron mobility is to use the smaller value of ionic mobility. This will lead to a larger force because the force in equation 14 is inversely proportional to the mobility.
+16
+
+
+F=J-'I- (10-' A)0.04m) = 0.16 N. (17)
+2Volt )s cm)
+The force in equation 17, due to the drift of nitrogen ions, could lift a mass M:
+F 0.16N
+M - - - 16 gram. (18) g 10 sm2
+The force on the capacitor, given in equation 18, is within a factor of 3, assuming a capacitor of mass 5 g.
+As alternative derivation of the scaling equation 14, consider the asymmetric capacitor as being essentially an electric dipole of magnitude,
+p = p = Ql, (19)
+where Q is the charge on one plate and / is the average effective separation between plates. When a high voltage is applied to the asymmetric capacitor (assume positive voltage on the thin wire and negative on the foil), the high electric field around the thin wire ionizes the atoms of the air. There is comparatively little ionization near the foil due to the lower magnitude electric field near the foil. The ionized atoms around the foil form a plasma, consisting of charged electrons and positively charged ions. The force on the capacitor must scale like
+F = V(p.E), (20)
+where E is the electric field. The gradient operates on the electric field, producing a magnitude dE / dx E / L Using this value in equation 20, together with the size of the dipole in equation 19, leads to a force on the capacitor
+F :QV -if V iI(v21)
+which is identical to equation 12.
+From the scaling derivations that were presented, it is clear that electron drift current leads to a force on the capacitor that is too small. Using the value of mobility appropriate for (nitrogen) ions leads to a force whose order of magnitude is in agreement with experiment.
+Note that the force, given by equation 14, scales inversely with the mobility u. If the ions are responsible for providing the required small mobility, then the picture is that the ions are like a low-mobility molasses, which provides a large spacecharge to attract the negatively charged foil electrode. As soon as the foil electrode moves toward the positive ion cloud, another positive ionic cloud is set up around the thin electrode, using the energy from the voltage source. In this
+17
+
+
+way, the dipole (asymmetric capacitor) moves in the nonuniform electric field that it has created. Physically, this is a compelling picture; however, much work must be done (experimentally and theoretically) to fill in important details to determine if this picture has any merit.
+5. Thermodynamic Analysis of the Biefeld-Brown Force
+In this section, we present our hypothesis that the Biefeld-Brown force, generated on an asymmetric capacitor, can be described by the thermodynamics of a fluid dielectric in an external electric field produced by charged conductors. The (partially ionized) air between capacitor electrodes is the fluid dielectric. Although the air is partially ionized, we assume that this fluid dielectric is close to neutral on the macroscopic scale. The charged conductors are the asymmetric electrodes of the capacitor. The battery provides the charge on the electrodes and the energy to sustain the electric field in the air (dielectric) surrounding the capacitor electrodes.
+The total system is composed of three parts: the partially ionized air dielectric, the metal electrodes of the capacitor and the battery (voltage source) and connecting wires, and the electromagnetic field. The battery is simply a large reservoir of charge. The total momentum (including the electromagnetic field) of this system must be constant (9):
+Pdielectric + Pelectrodes + Pfied = constant, (22)
+where Pdielectric is the momentum of the fluid dielectric (air in the capacitor gap and surrounding region), Pelectrodes is the momentum of the metallic electrodes, wire and battery, and Pfield is the momentum ofthe electromagnetic field. Taking the time derivative of equation 22, the forces must sum to zero
+Fdielectric + Felctrodes + 0. (23)
+dt
+As far as the electric field is concerned, its total momentum changes little during the operation of the capacitor, because the field is in a steady state; energy is supplied by the battery (charge reservoir). So we set the rate of change of field momentum to zero, giving a relation between the force on the electrodes and the dielectric:
+Felectrodes = - Fdielectric. (24)
+A lengthy derivation based on thermodynamic arguments leads to an expression for the stress tensor, oki,, for a dielectric medium in an electric field (6, 10, 11),
+1
+iPT. P
+ap + EjDk, (25)
+[pY )T.E ]ji
+18
+
+
+where the free energy F is a function of the fluid density, p, temperature, T, and electric field E. The differential of the free energy is given by
+dF = - S dT + 4 dp - D dE, (26)
+where S is the entropy, D is the electric induction vector, and ;is the chemical potential per unit mass (6). Equation 25 is valid for any constitutive relation between D and E. We assume that the air in between the capacitor plates is an isotropic, but nonlinear, polarizable medium, due to the high electric fields between plates. Therefore, we take the relation between D and E to be
+D = c(E)E, (27)
+where E(E) is a scalar dielectric function that depends on the magnitude of the electric field, E = IE I, the temperature, T, and the density of the fluid, p. We have suppressed the dependence
+of 6 on T and p for brevity. The dielectric function e(E) depends on position through the
+variables T and p and because the medium (air) between capacitor plates is assumed to be nonuniform. Inserting equation 27 into equation 26, we integrate the free energy along a path from E = 0 to some finite value of E obtaining
+1 Eff (28)
+where 6eff is an effective (averaged) dielectric constant, given by
+I E2
+6,eff, =2 fJ8Q/)dý, (29)
+0
+where ý is a dummy integration variable. The dielectric constant ceff depends on spatial position (because of e), on T, p, and on electric field magnitude E.
+The body force per unit volume of the dielectric,f, is given by the divergence of the stress tensor,
+f c- (30)
+axk
+where there is an implied sum over the repeated index k. Performing the indicated differentiations in equation 30, we obtain an expression for the body force (6, 10, 11)
+f=-V Po(p,rT)[+-I V E2p7- E2VgE. +1(8 - + pE (31)
+2 ap ThE 2 22 eff
+where the external charge density is given by div D = pext. This charge density is the overall external charge density in the dielectric, which may have been supplied by the battery, electrodes, and the surrounding air. In equation 31, the pressure Po(p, T) is that which would be
+19
+
+
+present in the absence of the electric field. In the case of a linear medium, the dielectric function c'is independent of field E, and eff = E, which reduces to the result derived by Landau and Lifshitz (6) (see equation 15.12).
+The total force on the fluid dielectric, Fdielectric, is given by the volume integral of f over the volume ofthe dielectric, Q:
+Fdielecac = ff dV (32)
+The volume Q is the whole volume outside the metal electrodes ofthe capacitor. According to equation 24, the net force on the capacitor, Felectrodes, is the negative of the total force on the dielectric:
+F-ecoodes 2 2 J PXtE dV, (33)
+where we have dropped the term containing the gradient in the pressure, assuming that it is negligible. Equation 33 gives the net force on capacitor plates for the case where the fluid dielectric is nonlinear, having the response given in equation 27. In equation 33, both 6 and 6' ff are functions of the electric field. Note that the first three terms of the integrand depend on the square of the electric field, which is in agreement with the fact that the observed force direction is independent of the polarity of the applied bias.
+There are four terms in the force. The first term is proportional to the gradient of the dielectric constant, Ve. We expect that the dielectric constant has a large variation in between regions of low and high electric field, such as near the smaller electrode. We expect that there is a strong nonlinear dielectric response due to ionization of the air. The resulting free charges can move large distances, leading to a highly nonlinear response at high electric fields. Therefore, it is possible that this first term in the integrand in equation 33 has the dominate contribution. We expect this term to contribute to a force that points toward the smaller electrode (as observed experimentally), and we expect that this contribution is nearly independent of polarity of applied bias.
+The second term in the force equation 33 is proportional to the gradient of the product ofthe square of the electric field and the difference in dielectric constants. The difference in the dielectric constants, eff - s, can be expanded in a Taylor series in E
+1ecf'-(O)E - 1 6.(O)E' (34)
+34
+20
+
+
+where
+ac ,and
+a T,p.,E=0
+al0e)(2c (35)
+aE ) E=
+The gradient of the square of the electric field always points toward the smaller electrode, independent of the polarity of bias applied to the capacitor. We do not know the sign of the dielectric constants e'(0) and c'"(0). If the air has dielectric properties described by e'(0) < 0 and e"(0) < 0, then this term would contribute to a force toward the smaller electrode (which
+would be in agreement with experiment). Alternatively, the term 1 V[(8ef - e)E2] may have the
+2
+wrong sign but may be small. This must be determined experimentally by studying the dielectric properties of air or other gas.
+The third term in the force equation 33 is difficult to evaluate. It may well be negligible, especially compared to the first term (assuming highly nonlinear dielectric response at high fields). Alternatively, if the air behaves as a nearly linear dielectric medium, then Ceff- g, and the dielectric constant of a gas is typically proportional to its density, 6 = a 6o p, where 6o is the permittivity of free space, and a is a constant. Using these expressions in equation 33 for C yields the force on the capacitor electrodes for the case of a linear dielectric fluid:
+(Felectrodes)LinearMedium f {- VE2 - PextE} dV. (36)
+For a linear medium, the first term in equation 35 contributes to a force pointing in a direction that is opposite to the gradient of the square of the electric field, i.e., it points toward the larger electrode (opposite to the experimentally observed force). In order to obtain a net force from equation 36 that is oriented toward the smaller electrode, the second term in equation 36 would have to dominate, i.e., the net force on the capacitor would be due to external charge effects. The magnitude of the external charges (from battery and surrounding air) on the dielectric fluid must be determined experimentally.
+If the space between the capacitor plates is filled with a vacuum instead of dielectric, equation 33 reduces to a force given by
+(Felectrodes )Vacuum = - JPe~tE dV, (37)
+where pext = 0 for vacuum, leading to zero force on the capacitor.
+21
+
+
+The thermodynamic theory presented here provides a general expression in equation 33 for the net force on a capacitor in terms of the macroscopic electric field E. This electric field in equation 33 must be determined by a microscopic calculation, taking into account the ionization of gas between capacitor plates, and details of charge transport.
+In summary, at the present time, the relative magnitudes of the fours terms in the force expression given in equation 33 are unknown. The magnitudes of these terms must be determined by constructing a set of experiments designed to determine the field-dependent dielectric properties of the fluid (given by e) surrounding the asymmetric capacitor electrodes. These experiments will permit us to verify if the thermodynamic theory presented here can explain the magnitude and sign of the observed force.
+6. Summary and Suggested Future Work
+We have presented a brief history of the Biefeld-Brown effect: a net force is observed on an asymmetric capacitor when a high voltage bias is applied. The physical mechanism responsible for this effect is unknown. In section 4, we have presented estimates of the force on the capacitor due to the effect of an ionic wind and due to charge drift between capacitor electrodes. The force due to ionic wind is at least 3 orders of magnitude too small. The force due to charge drift is plausible, however, the estimates are only scaling estimates, not a microscopic model.
+In section 5, we have presented a detailed thermodynamic theory of the net force on a capacitor that is immersed in a nonlinear dielectric fluid, such as air in a high electric field. The main result for the net force on the capacitor is given in equation 33. The thermodynamic theory requires knowledge of the dielectric properties of the fluid surrounding the capacitor plates. It is not possible to estimate the various contributions to the force until we have detailed knowledge about the high-field dielectric properties of the fluid.
+More experimental and theoretical work is needed to gain an understanding of the BiefeldBrown effect. As discussed, the most pressing question is whether the Biefeld-Brown effect occurs in vacuum. It seems that Brown may have tested the effect in vacuum, but not reported it (Appendix B). More recently, there is some preliminary work that tested the effect in vacuum, and claimed that there is some small effect-smaller than the force observed in air; see the second report cited in reference (2). Further work must be done to understand the effect in
+detail. A set of experiments must be performed in vacuum, and at various gas pressures, to determine the force vs. voltage and current. A careful study must be made of the force as a function of gas species and gas pressure. In order to test the thermodynamic theory presented here, the dielectric properties of the gas must be carefully measured. Obtaining such data will be a big step toward developing a theoretical explanation ofthe effect. On the theoretical side, a microscopic model of the capacitor (for a given geometry) must be constructed, taking into
+22
+
+
+account the complex physics of ionization of air (or other gas) in the presence of high electric fields. Only by understanding the Biefeld-Brown effect in detail can its potential for applications be evaluated.
+23
+
+
+7. References
+1. There are numerous references to asymmetric capacitors, called "lifters" on the internet, see Web sites:
+Naudin, J. http://jnaudin.free.fr/ (accessed September 2002).
+Naudin, J. http://www.jlnlabs.org (accessed September 2002).
+Optical Multimedia. http://www.soteria.com/brown (accessed September 2002).
+Transdimensional Technologies. http://www.tdimension.com/ (accessed September
+2002)
+American Antigravity. http://tventura.hypermart.net/index.html (accessed September
+2002).
+2. Stein, W. B. ElectrokineticPropulsion.: The Ionic Wind Argument; Purdue University Energy Conversion Lab, Hangar #3, Purdue Airport West Lafayette, IN; http://foldedspace.com/EKP%201onic%2OWind%20Study%20-%20Purdue.doc (accessed September 2000); Talley, R. L. Twenty FirstCentury PropulsionConcept; Veritay Technology, Inc. NY; report prepared for the Phillips Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command, Propulsion Directorate, Edwards AFB CA.
+3. Cheng, S.-I. Glow Discharge as an Advanced Propulsion Device. ASRS Journal1962, 12, 1910-1916.
+4. Christenson, E. A.; Moller, P. S. Ion-Neutral Propulsion in Atmospheric Media. AIAA Journal1967, 5 (10), 1768-1773.
+5. Barsoukov, E. http://sudy-zhenja.tripod.com/liftertheory/ (accessed September 2002).
+6. Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. ElectrodynamicsofContinuousMedia, 2nd ed.; Pergamon Press: New York, 1984; sections 2, 5, and 15.
+7. Loeb, L. B. FundamentalProcessesofElectricalDischargesin Gases. John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1939; p 191.
+8. Brown, S. C. Basic Data ofPlasmaPhysics; John Wiley and Sons: New York, 1959; p 62.
+9. Stratton, J. A. Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, 1941; p 104.
+24
+
+
+10. Abraham, M.; Becker, R. The ClassicalTheory ofElectricityand Magnetism, 2nd ed.; Hafner Publishing Co. Inc: New York, 1950; p 95.
+11. Stratton, J. A. ElectromagneticTheory, McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, 1941; p. 139.
+25
+
+
+Appendix A. Short Patent History Dealing With Asymmetric Capacitors
+Townsend Brown, T. A Method of and an Apparatus or Machine for Producing Force or Motion. GB Patent 300,311, November 15, 1928.
+Townsend Brown, T. Electrokinetic Apparatus. U.S. Patent 2,949,550, August 16, 1960.
+Bahnson, A. H., Jr. Electrical Thrust Producing Device. U.S. Patent 2,958,790, November 1, 1960.
+Townsend Brown, T. Electrokinetic Transducer. U.S. Patent 3,018,394, January 23, 1962.
+Townsend Brown, T. Electrokinetic Apparatus. U.S. Patent 3,187,206, June 1, 1965.
+Bahnson, A. H., Jr. Electrical Thrust Producing Device. U.S. Patent 3,227,901, January 4, 1966.
+Cambell, J. W. (NASA). Apparatus for Generating Thrust Using a Two Dimensional, Asymmetrical Capacitor Module. U.S. Patent 2,002,012,221, January 31, 2002.
+Cambell, J. W. (NASA). Apparatus for Generating Thrust Using a Two Dimensional Asymmetric Capacitor Module. U.S. Patent 6,411,493, June 25, 2002.
+27
+
+
+Appendix B. Force on Asymmetric Capacitor in Vacuum*
+Enclosed below is a copy of my email correspondence with Jean-Louis Naudin (JLN Labs) [1], who hosts a Web site on "Lifters." In this correspondence, Naudin quotes a letter, purportedly signed by T. Townsend Brown, in which Brown discusses the question of whether an asymmetric capacitor has a net force on it in vacuum under high voltage.
+T. Townsend Brown's letter, as provided by J. Naudin:
+Dear.....
+You have asked several question which I shalltry to answer. The experiments in vacuum were conductedat "SocieteNationale de ConstructionAeronautique" in Parisin 1955-56, in the Bahnson Laboratories,Winston-Salem, North Carolinain 1957-58 andat the "GeneralElectric Space Center" at King ofPrussia,Penna,in 1959.
+Laboratorynotes were made, but these notes were neverpublishedandare not availible to me now. The results were varied,dependingupon the purpose ofthe experiment. We were aware that the thruston the electrode structureswere causedlargely by ambiant ion momentum transferwhen the experiments were conducted in air. Many ofthe tests, therefore, were directed to the explorationofthis component of the total thrust.In the case of the G.E. test, cesium ions were seeded into the environment andthe additionalthrust due to seeding was observed
+In the Paristest miniaturesaucer type airfoils were operatedin a vaccum exceeding 10-6mm Hg.Bursts ofthrust (towards the positive) were observedevery time there was a vaccum spark within the large belljar.- These vacuum sparks representedmomentary ionization,principallyof the metal ions in the electrode material. The DCpotentialused rangedfrom 70kV to 220kV
+Condensersofvarioustypes, airdielectricandbarium titanatewere assembledon a rotary supportto eliminate the electrostaticeffect ofchamber walls andobservationswere made ofthe rate ofrotation.Intenseaccelerationwas always observedduringthe vacuum spark (which, incidentally,illuminatedthe entire interiorofthe vacuum chamber). Barium Titanate dielectriquealways exceeded airdielectricin total thrust. The results which were most significantfrom the -standpointofthe Biefeld-Brown effect was that thrust continued,even when there was no vacuum spark,causing the rotor to acceleratein the negative topositive direction
+This appendix appears in original form, without editorial change.
+29
+
+
+to the point where voltage hadto be reducedor the experiment discontinuedbecause ofthe danger that the rotorwouldfly apart.
+In short, it appearsthere is strongevidence that Biefeld-Brown effect does exist in the negative to positive directionin a vacuum ofat least 10-6 Torr. The residualthrust is several ordersof magnitude largerthan the remainingambient ionization can accountfor.Goingfurther in your letter ofJanuary28th, the condenser "Gravitor"as describedin my Britishpatent, only showed a loss ofweight when verticallyorientedso that the negative-to-postive thrustwas upward In other words, the thrusttended to "lift"the gravitor. Maximum thrust observed in 1928for one gravitorweighing approximately 10 kilograms was 100 kilodynes at 150kV DC. These gravitors were very heavy, many of them made with a molded dielectric oflead monoxide and beeswax andencasedin bakelite. None ofthese units ever 'floated"in the air.
+There were two methods oftesting, either as apendulum, in which the angle ofrise against gravitywas measuredandchartedagainstthe appliedvoltage, or, as a rotor 4ft. in diameter,on whichfour "gravitors"were mounted on the periphery. This 4ft. wheel was tested in airand also under transformeroil.The totalthust or torque remainedvirtually the same in both instances,seeming to prove that aero-ionizationwas not wholly responsiblefor the thrust observed.Voltage used on the experiments underoil could be increasedto about 300kV DC and the thrust appearedto be linearwith voltage.
+In subsequentyears,from 1930 to 1955, criticalexperiments were performedat the Naval ResearchLaboratory, Washington, DC.; the Randall-MorganLaboratoryofPhysics, University ofPenna., Philadelphia;at afieldstation in Zanesvill, Ohio, andtwo field stations in Southern California,ofthe torque was measuredcontinuouslyday andnightfor many years. Large magnitudevariationswere consistenly observed under carefully controlled conditions of constantvoltage, temperature,under oil, in magnetic andelectrostaticshields, not only undergroundbut at variouselevations. These variations,recordedautomaticallyon tape, were statisticallyprocessedandseveral significantfacts were revealed
+There were pronouncedcorrelationswith mean solartime, sideraltime andlunarhour angle. This seemed to prove beyond a doubt that the thrust of "gravitors"variedwith time in a way that relatedto solarand lunartides andsideralcorrelationof unknown origin. These automatic records,acquiredin so many different locationsover such a longperiodoftime, appearto indicate that the electrograviticcoupling is subject to an extraterrestriaflactor,possibly related to the universalgravitationalpotentialor some other (asyet) unidentified cosmic variable.In response to additionalquestions,a reply of T.T Brown, datedApril, 1973, stated:"The apparatuswhich lifted itselfandfloated in the air,which was describedby Mr Kitselman, was not a massive dielectric as describedin the Englishpatent.Mr Kitselman witnessedan experiment utilisinga 15" circular,dome-shapedaluminum electrode,wired andenergizedas in the attachedsketch. When the high voltage was applied,this device, althroughtetheredby wires from the high voltage equipment, did rise in the air,lifting not only its own weight but also a
+30
+
+
+small balanceweight which was attachedto it on the uderside. It is true that this apparatus would exert aforce upwardof I 10% of its weight.
+The above experiment was an improvement on the experimentperformed in Parisin 1955 and 1956 on disc airfoils. The Parisexperiments were the same as those shown to Admiral Radford
+in PearlHarborin 1950.
+These experiments were explained by scientific community as due entirely to "ion-momentum transfer",or "electricwind". It waspredictedcategoricallyby many "would-be" authoritiesthat such an apparatuswould not operate in vaccum. The Navy rejectedthe researchproposal(for furtherresearch)for this reason. The experimentsperformed in Parisseveralyears later, proved that ion wind was not entirely responsiblefor the observed motion andproved quite
+conclusively that the apparatuswould indeed operate in high vacuum.
+Later these effects were confirmed in a laboratoryat Winston-Salem, N.C., especially constructedfor this purpose. Again continuousforce was observed when the ionization in the medium surroundingthe apparatuswas virtuallynil.In reviewing my letter ofApril 5th, I notice, in the drawingwhich I attached,that I specified the power supply to be 50kV Actually, I should have indicatedthat it was 50 to 250kVDCfor the reason that the experiments were conducted
+throughout thatentire range.
+The higherthe voltage, the greaterwas theforce observed It appearedthat, in these rough tests, that the increaseinforce was approximatelylinearwith voltage. In vaccum the same test was carriedon with a canopy electrode approximately 6" in diameter,with substantialforce being displayedat 150 kVDC. I have a short trip of movie film showing this motion within the vacuum chamber as the potentialis applied."
+Kindest personalregards,
+Sincerely,
+T Townsend Brown
+Best Available Copy
+31
\ No newline at end of file
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+The Man Who Mastered Gravity Copyright ©
+2023 by Paul Schatzkin Incorrigible Arts /
+Embassy Books & Laundry Incorrigiblearts.com /
+ttbrown.com Credits:
+Author / Publisher: Paul Schatzkin Editor: Mike Williams Proofreader: David Rosignoli Cover
+Design: MST Shema (fiverr.com/create_shema) Design and Formatting: Muzammil Faarooq
+(fiverr.com/muzammilfaarooq
+All Rights Reserved
+No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without
+permission in writing from the publisher. All trademarks mentioned in the book of the property of the
+respective trademark holders. Use of any trademarked term in this book should not be regarded as
+affecting the validity of the trademark.
+Catalog / Publication Data Schatzkin, Paul
+The Man Who Mastered Gravity : A Twisted Tale of Space, Time and the Mysteries in
+Between / Paul Schatzkin Paperback: ISBN: 978-0-9762000-2-4
+Hard Cover ISBN: 978-0-9762000-3-1
+
+
+eBook ISBN: 978-0-9762000-4-8
+Audiobook ISBN: 978-0-9762000-5-5
+
+
+
+
+Contents
+Introduction to the 2023 Edition
+Preface
+1. White
+Prologue
+1. The Boy With The Chestnut Hair
+2. No Moving Parts
+3. A Bitter Pill
+4. The Second Edison
+5. A Different Well
+6. On The Shoulders of Giants
+7. A Brute and Awkward Force
+8. Impossible, And Not To Be Considered
+9. A “Push,” Not A “Pull”
+10. The Biefeld-Brown Effect
+11. “He Made Things Up”
+12. Can We Talk?
+13. A Rare Force of Nature
+14. We Will Just Sail Away
+15. A Pineapple and A Pea
+16. A Great Disappointment
+17. Wagner In The Trees
+18. Anniversaries
+19. Tapping Cosmic Energy
+20. Gravity & Electricity, Space & Time
+21. How I Control Gravitation
+22. Closing Ashlawn
+23. A Vague and Unscientific Report
+24. Opportunities for Technicians and Scientists
+
+
+25. A Seagoing Sailor At Last
+26. A Complete System
+27. A Deeper Draft Vessel
+28. A Gentle Breeze, A Mattress – and Mr. X
+29. The Caroline
+30. Intrepid
+31. Reflections on Biscayne Bay
+32. Dredging The Depths
+33. A Deeper Draft (Redux)
+34. A Time of Peace, A Tug of War
+35. Never Heard of the Guy
+36. Back to Ohio
+37. Too Big A Word
+38. Parallel Lives
+39. Remember, Dear...
+40. Golden Galleon
+41. Shadow Trails
+42. Your First Lesson
+43. For The Good Of The Service
+44. We’ve Lost Morgan
+2. Black
+Introduction to Part 2: Black
+45. The Ghost At The Corral
+46. Hey Woodward
+47. A Universe Away
+48. Man On The Floor!
+49. Structure of Space
+50. Quantum Germans
+51. Foo Fighters
+52. Bombers And Parachutes
+
+
+53. Good For One Fare
+54. Werewolves And Mud
+55. Pear Shaped
+56. Eerily Quiet
+57. We Have Much To Decide
+58. Mileage, Folks!
+59. You Have The Green Light
+60. No Need For Formalities
+61. Will You Please Come With Us?
+62. The Browns of Ka Lae Hau
+63. Missing Files and Moles
+64. Pearl Harbor
+65. Mortally Wounded
+66. Flying Saucers
+67. Hot Air
+68. Good Morning, Sweetie Peach
+69. Summer In The City
+70. Flying Saucers In the Bible
+71. Mostly Absent
+72. Winterhaven:A New Age of Speed and Power
+73. Like Fish In Water
+74. Not A Dream
+75. Paris
+76. Notes & Ideas
+77. Berlin
+78. London
+79. NICAP
+80. Tunnel Diode
+81. First, We Build a Fire
+82. Something Happened
+83. Strange Things
+84. Strike Another Match
+85. Operation Peacock
+
+
+86. Into The Sunset
+87. I Want A Home
+88. Burning Daylight
+89. Get A Life
+90. Avalon
+Epilogue:
+Acknowledgements
+Endnotes
+Index
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Introduction to the 2023 Edition
+The mystery of Life isn’t a problem to be solved.
+It is a reality to experienced.
+- Frank Herbert, Dune
+From 2003 to 2008, I researched and wrote a biography of a man named Thomas Townsend Brown. Or just Townsend Brown. Or ‘Dr. Brown’ to those who knew him.
+This was going to be the follow-up to my first published book, a biography of Philo T. Farnsworth. When The Boy Who Invented Television was published in 2002, I felt like I had found my new calling as a ‘biographer of obscure 20th century scientists.’ The Townsend Brown bio was going to be the first sequel.
+Until I was visited by the dreaded ‘sophomore curse.’
+In 2009, I abandoned the Townsend Brown project – because after 6 years of research and writing, I still had no idea what I was writing about.
+Countless times over the ensuing years, I have had conversations that go like this:
+Listener: “You were writing a book. What happened to that? What was it about?”
+Me: “Have you ever heard of the Ionic Breeze Air Purifier?”
+Listener: “You mean the thing that was advertised in the Sharper Image catalogs?”
+Me: “Yes. The one that circulates air without any moving parts....
+The listener nods in recognition. And then I start:
+“The Ionic Breeze is based on an anomalous electrical effect that was discovered by Thomas Townsend Brown when he was a teenager in the 1920s...”
+In my research I encountered what I can only describe as loosely knit network of people who believe that Townsend Brown’s discovery, when applied in a slightly different manner and with different materials, produces what might be described as an ‘anti-gravity’ effect (though Brown himself decried the term).
+
+
+Let’s just say for argument’s sake that he did just that.
+*
+In his career-crowning work, The General Theory of Relativity, Albert Einstein postulated that gravity is induced by a curvature in the space-time continuum – meaning that massive objects like planets and stars physically warp the space around them.
+In the last years of his life, Einstein tried to formulate a ‘Unified Field Theory’ – ‘The Theory of Everything’ – which could make the mathematical connection between electricity, magnetism, and gravity.
+Some who are familiar with his work believe that Townsend Brown discovered the physical manifestation of what Einstein could only calculate mathematically: a way of creating synthetic gravitational fields with electricity. If – as Einstein asserts – gravity is a warp in the fabric of the spacetime continuum, then by manipulating gravity, Brown unlocked the door to intergalactic communication, interstellar navigation – and, yes... time travel.
+I wanted to believe that, too.
+Over the course of six years, I dug into the life of Townsend Brown, drawing on the small archive of papers he left with his family, extensive contact with his daughter Linda, some Freedom of Information inquiries, and an extensive correspondence with at least two individuals who professed to have intimate, first-hand knowledge of Brown’s activities. These sources alluded to deep connections to America’s military intelligence and national security apparatus – and made frequent allusions to unseen forces beyond that.
+Eventually I succeed in amassing a manuscript of more than fivehundred-and-seventy pages.
+I was operating on the Michelangelo Principal: when asked how he made his masterpiece sculpture of David, Michelangelo replied, “I just got a block of marble and removed all the parts that were not David.” As I saw it, my first draft was my block of marble, and as I got into a second draft, all I had to do was remove the bits that did not drive the narrative. About halfway into a rewrite, I hit a wall: I had no idea what my ‘David’ looked like.
+
+
+All I could safely say about Townsend Brown was that “he spent half of his life engaged in some kind of classified military research, and the other half of his life engaged in covert intelligence operations – much of it intended to cover up the classified military research.”
+In other words, I had written ‘the biography of a man whose story cannot be told.’
+*
+At this point in my conversations, I typically turn to my listener and say,
+“OK, now it’s your turn. I want you to ask me: ‘So, Paul, what’s that book about?’”
+With some prodding, I can finally get them to ask me, “OK, Paul. So... what’s that book about?”
+“It’s about five-hundred-and-seventy fucking pages.”
+*
+I started the Townsend Brown project in the spring of 2003.
+The first draft manuscript was written over three years from 2005 to 2008. As they were written, the chapters were posted on a website and open to discussion.
+I reached my wits end and closed the book in the first weeks of 20091
+There was a fair amount of fallout from that abrupt abandonment, and while I didn’t reconsider my decision at the time, I was reluctant to bury the material entirely. Then it dawned on me that given the new media at my disposal – which I had already been using to build a nascent audience for the story – there was no reason I couldn’t ‘publish’ the material myself.
+You never really know what the future might hold – so I released the raw manuscript under the masthead of ‘Embassy Books and Laundry’ – a deliberate nod to a period in the 1950s when Townsend Brown said that he was “done with science.2” I suspected I might return to the story at some point, just as Brown never really turned his back on science.
+I didn’t think it would be thirteen years. Maybe that’s how long it takes to dry off when you’ve been drenched by a cosmic firehose.
+*
+
+
+One copy of the manuscript fell into the hands of one of my oldest friends, Mike Williams, who I have known since I moved to Nashville in 1994. Mike and his wife Kathy hosted the weekly ‘6-Chair Pickin’ Parties’ that supplied some of the inspiration for the Internet music business3 I started in 1995. When I was fishing for a title for my first book, which I said was about “the boy who invented television,” it was Mike who said, “That’s your title!”
+So, it seems fitting Mike would a have role in this undertaking, as well.
+Mike had told me many times that he was intrigued by the story, that he was drawn to the mystery and the challenges of the telling. He asked for a digital copy of the manuscript and in 2018 presented me with an extensively edited revision. Mike even went so far as to paginate his edit and present it to me bound as an actual book – the first time I had ever seen my own work in such a physical form.
+What Mike’s edit showed me was how horribly over-written my first draft was. Like I was trying to conceal the fact that I didn’t really know what story I was telling by just piling an overabundance of words on it.
+But even though it appeared I had abandoned the project, certain essential themes kept nagging at me until they could no longer be ignored.
+In 2022 a change in personal circumstances – a clearing of the decks, if you will – propelled this project to the front burner again.
+*
+This story lives at the center or the Venn diagram where science, science fiction and pseudo-science, conspiracy and reality all intersect. It is often hard to tell one from the other.
+An expression I heard often during the course of this endeavor inferred that the life of T. Townsend Brown represented one phase of a ‘multigenerational project’ unfolding alongside the thread of mankind’s evolution.
+Twenty years after I first started, it seems my contribution to that story has now entered its second generation.
+Paul Schatzkin
+February 5, 2023
+Regarding Endnotes, Bibliography And Appendices:
+Readers can find links to online resources cited in the endnotes at
+
+
+https:ttbrown.com/footnotes
+The bibliography is found only online at
+https://ttbrown.com/biblio
+Appendices will be accessible from
+https://ttbrown.com/apxs
+
+
+Preface
+Down the Rabbit Hole
+In another moment, down went Alice after the rabbit – never once considering how in the world she would get out again.
+– Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
+This is not a fairy tale, but perhaps it should begin:
+Once upon a time, there really was a T. Townsend Brown.
+Somehow, all the Big Mysteries of the century past – nuclear physics, relativity, quantum mechanics, UFOs and alien contact cover-up conspiracies, the clandestine operations of the military industrial complex all converge in the life of this one mercurial man.
+We know where he was born and where he was raised. We know who his parents were, his wife, his children and even his grandchildren. We know most of the dozens of places where he lived. We know where he died, and where he is buried.
+Beyond that, Townsend Brown is a ghost. A zephyr. A myth.
+*
+In the summer of 2002, I was putting the finishing touches on The Boy Who Invented Television – a biography of Philo T. Farnsworth, who, truly, invented television. Every one of the billions of video screens on the planet – including the tiny displays we carry in our pockets today – can trace its origins to a sketch that Farnsworth drew for his high-school science teacher in 1922, when he was just 14 years old. That his name is not more familiar is one of the confounding curiosities of our time4.
+I first heard of Philo Farnsworth in the summer of 1973, as I was graduating from Antioch College in Maryland and heading to the west coast to seek my fortune in the TeeVee business. A profile in a publication called Radical Software5 piqued my curiosity, but the harpoon didn’t sink in until I started hearing about his unfinished work in fusion energy – the still unanswered riddle of ‘how do you bottle a star?’
+That riddle was first posed to me later that same summer, on a bluff overlooking the Pacific Ocean in Santa Cruz, California, when an
+
+
+acquaintance introduced me to the concept6 of nuclear fusion and the promising work toward clean, safe, cheap and abundant energy that Farnsworth allegedly scuttled in the 1960s. Thirty years later that conversation led me to Townsend Brown.
+As I wrapped up my Farnsworth biography, I felt like I’d found a new calling: researching and writing ‘biographies of obscure 20th century scientists.’ I wondered what I could do for an encore.
+The universe must have been reading my mind when an email showed up in my inbox on July 9, 2002:
+T. Townsend Brown was another inventor who is forgotten and swept under the rug. He died on Catalina Island in 1985.
+Science in the late 50s said what he did was against physical law, yet the government classified his work. A bunch of government contractors both American and foreign have been working on it ever since.
+So where did all the R&D go? If you go out in the desert about 125 miles southwest of Las Vegas at night you will see an object flying around in the distance with a bluish haze around it. That’s where it went. Also Sharper Image is selling an air purifier on cable TV for $60. He never collected the royalties for that either.
+That message was signed simply ‘Janoshek’ and the ‘from’ address was untraceable.
+I Googled up a website7 dedicated to the life and work of this T. Townsend Brown. From the opening paragraphs I learned that:
+Thomas Townsend Brown, an American physicist, was a leader in developing theories concerning the link between electromagnetic and gravitational fields theorized by Dr. Albert Einstein. He advanced from theory to application with the development of solid and disc-shaped apparatuses, which are believed to have created and utilized temporary, localized gravitational fields.
+Brown’s work became very controversial due to the similarity between his work and what is believed to be the propulsion method of some observed UFO’s. His name is also often mentioned in the same breath as the so-called “Philadelphia Experiment,” as a
+
+
+possible candidate along with Nikola Tesla, A.L. Kitselman and Dr. Einstein.
+Gravitational fields? Einstein’s Unified Field Theory? That all sounded reasonable. But “disc-shaped apparatus and UFOs”? Hey, I write serious science biographies, not pseudo-science. And I am not easily drawn into conspiracy theories – UFO or otherwise.
+I found the email address of the website’s creator and sent him a message. Not wanting to sound too eager, I asked benign questions about how he started the website, and how and why he cared about Townsend Brown.
+Then I pretty much forgot all about it.
+A month later, somebody named Andrew Bolland replied. He had developed a relationship with the Brown family during the mid 1980s. What he told me got my attention. It sounded similar in some respects to the justpublished Farnsworth story, and also entirely different. I proposed writing a biography of T. Townsend Brown.
+Another month went by with no answer. Then Andrew wrote:
+I spoke with Brown’s daughter, and she thinks it would be fun to get involved. She was his primary research assistant – building prototypes and whatnot. Let me know if you want to pursue it.
+And that, Alice, is how rabbit holes are opened.
+
+
+Part 1:
+
+
+White
+
+
+Prologue
+Every Cabbie In Catalina
+(1985)
+Linda and Townsend on Catalina Island in the 1980s.
+“Daddy, you can’t do this! You’ll kill yourself! Mother and I will have to go to San Antonio to bring back your body!”
+Townsend Brown packed his overnight bag, a travel-worn satchel, the kind that doctors once took on house calls. He shuffled papers into an equally battered attaché.
+“I have to do this,” Townsend said. “I have to take these papers to San Antonio.”
+“Daddy, who the hell is in San Antonio? Why can’t they come here? Why can’t you just mail these papers?”
+Linda Brown was nearly forty years old. Her father was eighty and in failing health. His left lung had been removed a decade earlier – damaged, physicians suspected, by the ozone and radiation his body absorbed during
+
+
+decades of experimenting with high voltages and intense electrical fields. Now his right lung was showing similar symptoms.
+Townsend and Josephine – his wife of more than 50 years – lived with Linda, her husband George, and their daughter, the five of them sharing a weather-beaten, World War II-vintage Quonset hut on the island of Santa Catalina, off the southern California coast. Father and daughter argued in a tiny bedroom cluttered with electronic instruments and sensors, the last vestiges of his life’s work, investigating the mysterious, cosmic force he called ‘sidereal radiation.’
+“You can’t come with me,” Townsend said.
+The words stung. For nearly two decades, Linda had been at her father’s side in his lab, moving equipment, twisting the wires in his inventions whatever he needed, whatever he asked of her. Now she was afraid she’d never see him alive again.
+Townsend had arranged for a helicopter to fly him to Long Beach, where he would board a private jet. He needed a cab to take him to the chopper. He reached for the phone.
+“Go ahead Daddy,” Linda cried. “But remember, I know every cabbie on this island and not one of them is going to take you anywhere if I tell them not to.”
+When the cab arrived, Townsend folded his fragile frame into the rear seat. He leaned out the window and took his daughter’s hand. “Don’t worry, Sweetie,” he said with the calming tone that had reassured her before so many similar departures. “Everything is going to be all right.”
+Linda let go of her father’s hand and watched the cab disappear.
+The helicopter touched down in Long Beach, where a limousine waited to ferry Townsend to the charter. Peering through the windshield, he was pleased to see a muscular man of military bearing behind the wheel – the protégé he had recruited twenty years earlier: Morgan.
+
+
+1
+
+
+The Boy With The Chestnut Hair
+(1963)
+Ashlawn, on the Philadelphia ‘Main Line’ – The Brown family home from 1963-64.
+Great Valley High School in the ‘Main Line’ Philadelphia suburb of Malvern opened in the fall of 1963. Its soaring glass-and-steel architecture, long wide corridors, bright fluorescent lighting, and shiny vinyl floors were a space-age departure from its Georgian and Colonial pre-war predecessors. The new school drew on the heritage of the area. Its varsity teams were called ‘The Patriots’ – their mascot a jut-jawed, musket-toting Minute Man, replete with bayonet and tri-corn cap.
+Tall and powerfully built, Morgan had transferred into Great Valley for the school’s foreign language program, which offered classes in Russian. Morgan wanted to learn Russian so that he could serve his country in the Cold War. He read a lot of espionage thrillers and amused himself with romantic notions of becoming a spy.
+Great Valley High School greeted its first students with the smell of fresh paint and empty spaces along the hallways where the lockers had yet to be bolted in. “We had to carry all our books,” Morgan recalled, “so nobody ever went to the library to get more.” Except for Morgan, who encountered among the stacks a classmate with wavy, chin length brown hair and inquisitive eyes. Morgan watched as Linda Brown ran her fingertips along
+
+
+the spine of the books like they were old friends. Linda thumbed the pages of a James Joyce novel; The incomprehensible Irish master was one of Morgan’s favorites.
+Their eyes met, Linda nodded toward Morgan with a wistful half-smile and returned to the book.
+“Hmmm,” Morgan thought, “this one is different.”
+Checking into a political science class an hour later, Morgan found himself a seat beside this girl. “Good thing the chair was empty,” he recalls, “because I would have made it so if it had been occupied.”
+“He was a good-looking guy, with chestnut hair that he wore in a ‘Princeton cut,’ Linda recalled. “He was very ‘Main Line’ but he was also very different. He was a member of the Chess club but was also a champion wrestler. I found him fascinating.” In the weeks that followed, Linda watched how the other girls at Great Valley nearly fell all over themselves to get his attention.
+“I was a bit of a jerk,” Morgan recalled, “but I had an interesting thing going. There was a whole assortment of girls who wanted to sleep with me, and I was carried away with the idea of how much fun sex was. I had no scruples, and that oddly seemed to make me more of an attraction.”
+Linda had a steady boyfriend named Howie, but that didn’t stop her from engaging in intellectual food fights with her new classmate. In poly-sci, they debated national security, with Linda asserting privacy rights while Morgan defended the security needs of the state.
+“She fought me when no one else would,” Morgan recalled, “and ignored me when I needed to be ignored. I teased her like a brother teases a sister, but neither of us was very good at that kind of thing. I really didn’t know how to do it, and she didn’t really know how to respond, so we just sort of squared off. It took a while before we realized there was chemistry brewing.”
+Linda sensed the chemistry too but had a different reaction: “I would kick myself for being so outspoken. I was absolutely positive that I had broken all the rules on how to attract a man!”
+Morgan wondered about Linda’s family. “The buzz at school was that her dad, a gentle scientist, was actually a member of the mob. The kids at Great
+
+
+Valley would say, ‘He seems a gentleman, but his sidekick has got to be a hired killer.’”
+The sidekick was a lean, dour, chap named Charles Miller, who drove the limousine in which Linda, Howie and their friends often went on dates. Linda’s girlfriends thought having a limo at their disposal was “just the coolest thing ever,” but Charles was a mystery. One night after a movie, Charles picked the kids up at the theater and dropped them all off – without ever asking any of them where they lived.
+When the limo pulled up to his house at the end of a remote country road, Howie wondered aloud, “How did he know where I live? I certainly didn’t tell him how to get out here. In fact, none of us told him where we live, he just drove right up to everybody’s house!”
+Linda looked up and caught Charles looking back in the rear-view mirror, with his cap pulled down tightly over his eyes as if to say, “Oh crap, I screwed up.” She covered for him, explaining that Charles had gotten directions when they first started dating. “After all,” Linda said, “that’s his job.” Howie was satisfied and never mentioned it again, but after that Linda realized that Charles knew more about whoever she dated than she did.
+Such intrigue only piqued Morgan’s interest in his confrontational classmate. He started shadowing Linda’s movements. When she went on a date with Howie, Morgan would bump into them; when she went walking with her girlfriends, their paths would cross, a tactic that often backfired. When the other girls started flirting with Morgan, Linda just lowered her eyes and slipped away.
+The Brown family lived in a stately fieldstone Colonial called Ashlawn, just a cornfield away from Great Valley High. As fall frosted into winter, Linda hosted skating parties on the pond behind the house. One cold afternoon she saw two girlfriends coming through the field; between them was the tall boy with the chestnut hair.
+Morgan wasn’t all that interested in ice-skating. When the rest of the party headed outside to the pond, Morgan wandered through the big house. He looked through the door of one wood-paneled room and found Linda’s father tinkering with something on his desk. Morgan watched from the doorway.
+
+
+Townsend looked up, and in a tone that suggested that he had been expecting this particular visitor, said simply, “Hello there.”
+
+
+2
+
+
+No Moving Parts
+(1963)
+As he entered the study, Morgan found Townsend Brown working on an invention that could move air without any moving parts. Looking much like an oversized window fan, the three-foot-square wooden frame stood perched on a triangular base. Dozens of parallel metal strips and wires stretched like Venetian blinds across the front of the box. There were no whirling blades and no electric motor, yet air poured silently and steadily through the baffles.
+Morgan peered through the front panel. He felt the air on his face. He walked around the back, looking for the magician’s secret. How could air be moving through if there was no fan?
+Townsend explained that an electrically induced force field squeezed the air, “the way your fingers would squirt a watermelon seed.”
+“How cool,” Morgan thought, trying to reckon with something totally foreign to his experience.
+Townsend flipped a switch, and suddenly the fan became a loudspeaker. Clear, bright sound poured out, without any cone or magnetic coil to produce the vibrations. “He turned up the volume,” Morgan recalled, “and some kind of bomb went off inside my head.”
+Townsend explained that since the machine had no moving parts, there was no distortion, so the frequency could go well beyond the range of any kind of conventional loudspeaker. And if you had a matching pair, one could transmit and the other could receive.
+“So, if there’s no limit to the frequency, you could use this as a communications device. You could send a signal with this, and nobody else would be able to hear it, huh?”
+Townsend smiled, “Nope.” He put his glasses on and went back to work.
+Linda appeared at the door. “Unlike my other friends who had seen the fan in operation, Morgan was asking insightful, intelligent questions,” she recalled. “I could tell that Daddy was pleased. Nobody else I knew had ever come even close to understanding the possibilities.”
+“Are you coming skating with us?” Linda asked.
+
+
+Instead, Morgan “made up some excuse and beat it out of there after a hurried goodbye and a sincere ‘thank you’ to Linda’s father. I just needed to be out in the cold air, to hide in the dark a bit. I was a half-mile down the road when I realized I’d just passed a turning point in my life.”
+*
+Morgan was accustomed to sizing people up, ferreting out their strengths and weaknesses before he made any moves. But none of his usual seduction techniques worked with Linda Brown.
+“I found myself doing strange and stupid things. I’d drive by her house in my brother’s old car, and just sit in the dark, listening to the classical music that poured forth from her father’s study and smelling the wood smoke rising out of the chimney. One time, I even stomped my initials in the snow that covered their lawn.”
+Linda didn’t notice.
+“I had my classes in order,” Morgan recalled. I was making solid A’s, ruled the roost in most of my classes. I worked hard. I was prepared and in control. I did my homework. But Linda fought with me in class and won. That’s when I decided I was determined to seduce her. I devised a plan that started with calling, just to ask for a date. But rather than Linda, I found myself talking with a stiff, curt man named Charles, who assured me that ‘Miss Brown will be unavailable that evening.’ I was not easily intimidated, but this Charles character scared the crap out of me.”
+When Morgan finally managed to talk to Linda long enough to ask her for a date, she declined his invitation, informing him she was going steady with Howie.
+Morgan had heard scuttlebutt around school that Howie would be leaving in the spring for basic training with the National Guard.
+“Yes, Linda said, “he’ll be leaving in May.”
+“I’ll be around,” Morgan offered, certain that he caught an expression of relief in Linda’s slight smile.
+Winter melted into spring. Howie shipped out in early May, and word got back to Morgan that Linda had given Howie back his ring. Morgan made every possible effort to make his path cross Linda’s. But as much as he was
+
+
+thinking about Linda, he found himself thinking as well about the curious device he had seen in her father’s study.
+
+
+3
+
+
+A Bitter Pill
+(Notes from The Rabbit Hole #1)
+“Have you guessed the riddle yet? The Hatter said, turning to Alice again.
+“No, I give up,” Alice replied. “What’s the answer?”
+“I haven’t the slightest idea,” said the Hatter.
+“Nor I,” said the March Hare.
+Alice sighed wearily. “I think you might do something better with the time,” she said,” than wasting it asking riddles that have no answers.”
+– Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
+My correspondence with Townsend Brown’s only surviving child started in the late fall of 2002, five months after I’d first contacted Andrew Bolland through his Townsend Brown website.
+Andrew explained Linda’s reluctance to tear the lid off difficult memories:
+Being part of the Townsend Brown family has made Linda pretty much a recluse. The public believes that she was killed some years ago, and she prefers that actually. Her father began NICAP8 and became associated with UFOs through his research into gravitational fields. I’m sure you can get an idea of what type of people might want to look her up.
+Through Andrew, I sent Linda a copy of my now-published Farnsworth biography, The Boy Who Invented Television. A few weeks later, our correspondence began with a warning that I might have been well to heed:
+My inclination is to keep things as they are. Pulling myself into the past I know will be difficult and sometimes painful for me. I hope you understand I have reservations about how much help I will be to you. I was only involved in Dad’s development of what he called the “electrohydrodynamic fan/speaker.” Our family was glued to our involvement in development of ‘The Fan’ throughout
+
+
+my teenage years and into my early twenties. The fact that we suffered so much for what seemed later to be nothing has been a bitter pill.
+A variation of the device that blew Morgan’s mind earned some notoriety in the 1990s as an informercial staple, The Sharper Image Ionic Breeze air purifier. Linda’s remarks seemed to affirm what that first anonymous email had said, that her father’s work had become profitable, but not to the family’s benefit.
+My memories are from a twenty-year-old’s perspective. The fact that none of our expectations were realized formed that great bitter pill. How that dead end developed, has always raised more questions than answers.
+I wrote back,
+I’m attracted to the mysteries buried in the life of T. Townsend Brown in the same way that I have been compelled to explore the mysteries in the life of Philo T. Farnsworth. Somewhere at the heart of those mysteries are important insights into what sort of Universe we really live in.
+Therein lie the first steps on a quest I was cautioned early on is part of ‘a multi-generational’ project.
+
+
+4
+
+
+The Second Edison
+(1915)
+The future boy electrician with his parents Mary Townsend and L.K. Brown ca. 1915 (age 10).
+In the spring of 1915, a visitor to the home of Mr. and Mrs. Lewis K. Brown in the posh Terrace section of Zanesville, Ohio, observed a lad of about ten years walking along the wrought-iron fence that ringed the estate, casually picking earthworms off the surface of the manicured lawn and dropping them into a bucket.
+“What are you doing?” the visitor asked.
+“I’m collecting worms,” the boy replied.
+“But you’re not digging for them. They’re just wiggling along on the surface!”
+“That’s because I’ve electrified the fence,” the boy said, pointing to a battery he had connected to the metalwork. “The electricity in the soil excites the worms and brings them to the surface.”
+“So what will you do with all these worms?”
+“I’m going fishing.”
+*
+
+
+Thomas Townsend Brown was born to one of Zanesville’s most prominent families on March 18, 1905 – the same year an obscure Swiss patent clerk named Albert Einstein published a scientific paper on the subject of ‘Special Relativity.’
+As the only male of his generation, Thomas was expected to take the reins of a family fortune that began with the boy’s maternal grandfather. Thomas Burgess ‘T.B.’ Townsend was a second generation American. His own parents William Townsend and Harriet Burgess, met somewhere on the North Atlantic, aboard the ship that brought them both to the New World from their native Gloucestershire in England in 1834 or 1835. The couple was married in Pittsburgh, and T.B. was the first of their thirteen children. A hagiographic family history says T.B. Townsend “did not have a dollar when he started out in life.” His formal schooling ended when he was nine years old, “his total attendance at school covering just six months.”
+As a teenager, T.B. apprenticed to his father’s brick and stone mason’s trade in Beverly, Ohio. At the age of nineteen he “started out for the distant west.” Traveling by steamboat up the Mississippi River to Burlington, Iowa, he found work cutting and laying stone for the state’s new Governor’s Mansion.
+Some years later, T.B. returned to Beverly and took over his father’s contracting business, “...carrying on the business with constantly growing success...his patronage constantly increasing in volume and importance.” He expanded his interests to include marble and granite quarries, and when those business flourished, he moved his operations to Zanesville, which was at the time “the center of operations of wholesale dealers in marble and granite.”
+In the final decades of the 19th century, T.B. Townsend supplied the building stone for much of Zanesville and surrounding Muskingum County, including the classically ornate Tuscarawas County courthouse, which stands today as a testament to the extravagance of the Gilded Age.
+With the arrival of the new century, T.B. created much of the infrastructure of the area, starting with Zanesville’s first streetcar system. After selling his interest in that enterprise, he began to pave “the greater part of the streets of Zanesville and built most of the sewers.” Furnishing
+
+
+stone from his own quarries, he constructed foundations for more than a dozen bridges across the Muskingum River.
+Among his “other important investments,” Mr. Townsend was most proud of his “extensive and valuable ranch of thirty-six hundred acres in Marion County, Kansas” which raised, among other things “cattle, hogs, horses, corn, alfalfa and sorghum hay.” With a perimeter fence stretching more than 50 miles, Mr. Townsend could count among his assets some 16,500 fence posts strung with more than 200 miles of barbed wire.
+T.B. Townsend’s wife, Sybil Nulton Townsend, bore five children, three of whom survived into adulthood: eldest son Orville served as vicepresident and general manager of the Townsend Brick and Contracting Company; daughter Hattie married Rufus Burton, who served as the secretary and treasurer; daughter Mary and her husband L.K. Brown bore the next generation’s sole male heir, Thomas Townsend Brown.
+In the expressive language of the day, T.B. Townsend’s 1905 biography extols “...the extent and importance of the business interests which have claimed his attention and the success which has attended his efforts makes his history a notable one... he is a man of distinct and forceful personality, broad mentality and mature judgment and in his ready recognition and utilization of opportunity is found the secret of his prosperity.”
+Such were the shoes that the boy who electrified earthworms was expected to fill.
+*
+In deference to his mother, Thomas chose to be called by his middle name. His experiments with electricity led him to build his first wireless set in 1917, when radio was still only useful for transmitting Morse code. His efforts drew the attention of one of the local papers with the headline, “Townsend Brown Has A Complete Wireless Set.”
+Calling him “Zanesville’s second Edison,” the story noted that that he could barely understand the coded messages he was receiving: “Master Brown has paid most of his attention to the mechanical side of wireless telegraphy and is not yet able to read messages with proficiency. He is practicing hard, however.” Another of his gadgets was described as “...a wireless telephone. When he is at play away from home, he wears a
+
+
+wireless telephone over his ear. Members of the family are able to call him wherever they want to, merely speaking into the wireless transmitter in the house, and he can hear them perfectly.”
+The young prodigy’s experiments also caught the attention of the federal government. With The Great War unfolding in Europe, an officer from the Post Office showed up at the Brown’s home to request that he dismantle the antenna he had mounted on the roof. A rumor was circulating that the boy could pick up radio signals from Germany; the authorities were afraid that somebody could also use the apparatus to send messages to the enemy.
+That was Townsend Brown’s first brush with national security.
+*
+Few records survive of the boy’s schooling, with scant evidence of any merit or distinction.
+In 1922 and 1923 Townsend attended Doane Academy in Granville, midway between Columbus and Zanesville in central Ohio, a tree-lined village with a church at each corner of the main intersection. Looming from a hill above the town is the campus of Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education Society and named for William S. Denison also of Zanesville – in gratitude for his generous contribution to the school’s endowment.
+At the edge of the campus stood Denison University’s most distinctive structure, the Swasey Observatory – a rectangular concrete building with a white, rotating, dome-topped turret. Considered one of the finest academic observatories in the country, from 1911 until 1934 the observatory was administered by school’s Professor of Astronomy, Dr. Paul Alfred Biefeld.
+Townsend spent two years at Doane, preparing to enroll at Denison after graduation in 1923, earning mostly B’s and C’s in courses like Latin, Algebra, and English. His only A’s were in Physics and History.
+He was more proud of the school’s first radio station, which he built around a DeForest Audion tube that had been personally supplied by Lee DeForest after Brown tracked the inventor down during a trip to New York with his mother. With a mere ten-watt signal, Denison Station 8YM could be heard as far away as California. On Saturday nights the station broadcast a performance by a local band, The Green Imps. When the school tried to
+
+
+shut off power to the radio station in order to impose a 10:00 PM curfew, Townsend built his own Delco generating station and kept the music going well into the night
+In a personal memoir composed years later, Brown sums up his academic career by recalling, “I slept in the Physics room.”
+
+
+5
+
+
+A Different Well
+(Notes from the Rabbit Hole #2)
+“How queer everything is to-day! And yesterday things went on just as usual. I wonder if I’ve been changed in the night? Let me think: *was* I the same when I got up this morning?”
+– Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
+The history of science and invention is replete with stories of study and forethought rushing headlong into accidents and inspiration.
+My personal interest in such things traces back to a warm day in the spring of 1960 in Rumson, New Jersey. I was only in the third grade, but my mother was concerned that I wasn’t reading enough, so she hauled me off to the Oceanic Public Library on the Avenue of Two Rivers and told me to pick a book. I pulled a ‘Signature Series’ biography of Thomas Edison,9 and devoured it as quickly as a nine-year-old could. The following year, I portrayed Edison in the fourth-grade class play and delighted my classmates by inventing the lightbulb from the auditorium stage at Forrestdale School.
+A dozen-some years later – at another library, in Santa Monica, California – I stumbled on to the story of Philo T. Farnsworth10 – the fourteen-year-old Idaho farm boy who drew a sketch for his high school science teacher in 1922, telling him, “This is my idea for electronic television.” The technology has evolved in the decades since, but every video screen on the planet today can trace its origins to that sketch (which the teacher saved and introduced into patent litigation a decade later). I was fascinated to see photos from television’s pre-history in the 1920’s and 30’s and learn of the inspiration that replaced spinning wheels and mirrors with electrons bouncing around in a vacuum tube.
+By then I was already a devotee to the writings of Marshall McLuhan, who wrote that “the medium is the message” – meaning that “Societies have always been shaped more by the nature of the media by which men communicate than by the content of the communication.”
+This was during the late 1960’s, a time of great turmoil, much of it generated by new technologies like television and satellite communications.
+
+
+In McLuhan’s parlance, we were living in a ‘global village.’ McLuhan seemed to be saying that the path to mankind’s destiny would be paved with new gadgets and gizmos. By that reckoning, I figured that the people who came up with those new technologies were the ones who really changed things.
+That was the beginning of my pursuit of ‘biographies of obscure 20th century scientists,’ which came to its first fruition when I wrote and published a biography of Philo Farnsworth11 in 2002.
+Embodied in the Farnsworth story and others like it is the notion that inventors and scientists – as well as artists, musicians, and writers – arrive on Earth with certain ideas and information uniquely pre-coded into their brains. It seems these seminal geniuses are visited by a singular ability to draw from a different well of knowledge than the rest of us. At some point in their lives, typically while they are still teenagers, these uniquely inspired minds tap into this well, and then draw forth the inventions and technologies that alter life on our planet forever.
+They have special access to the ‘Universe of Magical Things’ and arrive pre-programmed to deliver what the modern vernacular often refers to as a ‘technology transfer.’
+We know where the technology is being transferred to. Of greater interest, perhaps, is where that knowledge is being transferred from.
+
+
+6
+
+
+On The Shoulders of Giants
+(1687-1923)
+A pantheon of giant shoulders. (l-r) Benjamin Franklin, Heinrich Hertz, Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell, Albert Einstein, Hans Christian Oersted, Michael Faraday, Max Planck.
+Modern science finds its origins in the 17th century – the Age of Enlightenment.
+In 1687 Sir Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica12, his epic articulation of a fixed and stable universe where time was absolute and unbending, ticking away at the same rate for everyone, everywhere.
+
+
+Principia provided the foundation for an explosion of scientific knowledge in the 18th and 19th centuries.
+Every discovery rests on those that preceded it. As Newton himself said, “If I have seen farther than others it is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants.”
+By the dawn of the 20th century, the firm foundations of Newton’s universe began to tremble with the investigation of a phenomenon unknown to Newton: electricity. Electricity was not really new; it has always been present in one form or another, in the static discharge from a cold piece of metal, or the violent, radiant outburst of a lightning strike. But it was not until the 18th century that science began to master this mysterious force. Given the extent to which electricity propels the modern world, it’s curious to think this now-indispensable force has only been at our command for roughly 200 years - not even the blink of an eye in human history.
+In the 18th century, new giants climbed on to Newton’s shoulders.
+In 1752, Benjamin Franklin flew a kite into an electrical storm to capture the discharge from a bolt of lightning. In 1820, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted noticed that an electrified wire could deflect a compass needle – the first recorded observation of the linkage between electricity and magnetism. Another decade passed before the English scientist Michael Faraday inverted Oersted’s discovery, demonstrating that a magnet could induce an electrical current in a metal wire.
+In the 1860s, Faraday’s protege, the Scotsman James Clerk Maxwell, compiled the equations that proved that electricity and magnetism are a single fundamental force, electromagnetism.
+Maxwell further observed that waves of electromagnetic energy could travel through space at the speed of light – a concept later verified by his own protégé, Heinrich Hertz, for whom radio frequencies are named. Maxwell also proposed that light itself was a form of this electromagnetic radiation – an idea that would ultimately challenge the very principals that had led him there in the first place.
+At the dawn of the 20th Century, the German physicist Max Planck postulated that matter absorbs heat energy and emits light energy discontinuously in ‘lumps.’ Planck’s lumps, which he called “quanta,” sparked the new scientific field of quantum mechanics.
+
+
+The breakthrough that separated the 20th Century from all those that preceded it arrived with the ‘Annus Mirabilis’ – the year of wonders, 1905 when Albert Einstein published not one, not two, but four papers that changed the world.
+Einstein’s first 1905 paper analyzed the photo-electric effect, by which certain metals emit electrons when their surface is struck by light13. For defining the relationship between light and electrical energy, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. Einstein’s second paper discussed the behavior of atoms in circumstances called ‘Brownian movements,’ proving the existence of atoms – a concept that was still hotly contested at the time.
+It was Einstein’s third paper, On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, that rearranged the paradigms of physics into an entirely new cosmology. Here was the Special Theory of Relativity that knocked Newton’s immutable universe off its foundations.
+Einstein’ fourth paper, Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? defined the relationship between mass and energy in history’s most famous equation: E=mc2.
+Newton’s enduring calculations on gravity got humans to the moon and back in the 1960s. But the ‘why’ of gravity – where it comes from and how it works – remained unexplained for another decade, when Einstein published his grandest theory of all.
+In 1916’s General Theory of Relativity, Einstein defined gravity as a curvature in space, a distortion caused by the presence of a massive object like a planet or a star. Standing on the shoulders of all who had gone before him, Einstein synthesized everything from Newton to Planck, casting mankind adrift in a universe where space could be bent and time was elastic.
+
+
+Einstein’s explanation of gravity is often illustrated as a massive object like the Earth stretching the fabric of space – like a ball suspended on a membrane, the moon orbiting in the resulting curvature.
+*
+In the fall of 1923, eighteen-year-old Townsend Brown enrolled at the California Institute of Technology and began setting up a private laboratory at the family’s California residence in Pasadena.
+Meanwhile, Albert Einstein was not done twisting the fabric of the universe. Earlier that year, he produced the first of several dissertations that dominated the remainder of his life’s work – his quest for the Unified Field Theory. Having redefined gravity, Einstein peered over the edge of the space-time continuum in search of an equation that would connect gravity with the other fundamental force of nature known at the time electromagnetism.
+Einstein had no way of knowing that on the other side or the world, a Cal Tech freshman had found the physical proof of what Einstein could only
+
+
+express as a theory.
+
+
+7
+
+
+A Brute and Awkward Force
+(1923)
+There is no record of a precise moment of inspiration – no apple falling on Townsend Brown’s head, no lightning striking a sky-bound key, no parallel furrows in a sugar beet field – only Brown’s insistence that whatever he knew, “he knew it all at once.” Something of the experience was described in a short memoir that Brown dictated to his wife decades later:
+During the summer or fall of 1923, I not only made considerable progress in chemistry, but in physics. I devised an X-Ray spectrometer for astronomical measurements – specifically the sun – and began to cultivate the thesis that a radiation other than light prevailed in the Universe, independent of our Solar system. I felt that this radiation could be gravitation. That it exerted a pressure (however small) on all forms of matter. This gave rise, in my view, to what could be considered as a new theory of gravitation. Such a theory called for gravitation being a “push” and not a “pull.” This seemed logical in that Nature abhors a vacuum. A mechanism for the transmission of gravitation theoretically was needed.
+The thesis that shines through this statement – indeed, the central concept that engaged Brown’s imagination for the rest of his life – is “a radiation other than light prevails in the Universe...”
+*
+Another biographical sketch of Townsend Brown comes to us from the pen of A. L. Kitselman, known as ‘Beau’ to his friends and a colleague of Brown’s on classified defense projects during the 1940s and 50s. Beau and his wife Betsy were as close friends as the constantly relocating Browns ever had. Kitselman published a scathing critique of the credentialed scientists who had dismissed Townsend Brown, in a pamphlet he called Hello, Stupid14. Variations of the stories contained in that pamphlet have supplied the foundation of subsequent accounts of Brown’s early years.
+According to Kitselman, young Thomas Brown looked to the heavens, dreamed of traveling among the stars – and pondered the means of
+
+
+propulsion by which that might be accomplished. He dismissed rocket power as “a brute and awkward force,” and wondered if electricity could shrink the distance between the stars more efficiently than the controlled explosion of combustible gasses.
+Such thoughts simmered as his Cal Tech physics class conducted experiments with an X-Ray tube. While the rest of the class was focused on the tube itself, “Tom” observed that when a high-voltage current was applied, the cables connecting the tube to the power supply appeared to jump with snake-like convulsions. And here, Kitselman says, is where the hopeful space traveler believed he’d found his means of transport through the cosmos.
+Unfortunately, Cal Tech was the kind of institution that encouraged its freshman to conform rather than experiment. It wasn’t long before the enthusiastic student with the big ideas was failing in both chemistry and physics. “As soon as I’d get an experiment set up,” he recalled, “the bell would ring and I would have to dis-assemble everything. I could never finish an experiment!”
+To compensate for that institutional limitation, the young man’s father installed a private laboratory on the second floor in the family home that was the equal of Cal Tech’s, so that his son could experiment freely.
+
+
+8
+
+
+Impossible, And Not To Be Considered
+(1923)
+During Townsend Brown’s freshman year at Cal Tech in 1923, his physics professor, Dr. Robert Andrews Millikan, was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics – making him the first member of Cal Tech’s faculty to be so honored, and an accolade that linked Millikan to the most renowned scientist of the 20th century. Millikan was recognized for measuring the negative charge of a single electron, and for confirming the calculations on the photoelectric effect for which Albert Einstein had been awarded his own Nobel two years earlier.
+Millikan came reluctantly to physics. As an undergraduate at Oberlin College, Millikan favored mathematics and classic languages. Not until his professor of Greek asked him to teach an elementary physics class – telling him that “Anyone who can do well in Greek can teach physics” – did his interests begin to shift. With his 1891 Bachelor’s degree in Classical Studies behind him, Millikan pursued physics at Columbia University, where he earned that institution’s first Ph.D in the field in 1895. Doctorate in hand, he followed a professor’s advice and spent a year at the heart of the world of theoretical physics in Germany.
+After his year abroad, Millikan accepted an invitation to join the faculty at the University of Chicago as an assistant to Albert A. Michelson – the coauthor of the most famous failed experiment in the history of science15.
+In 1887, Michelson and his colleague Edward Morley conducted a series of experiments intended to measure the medium through which light and radio waves travel. Borrowing from an idea as old as Aristotle, James Clerk Maxwell had proposed that electromagnetic waves are conveyed through the ‘luminiferous ether’ in the same way that sound waves travel through the air; the Michelson-Morley Experiment attempted to measure the Earth’s movement through that cosmic firmament. Instead, their elaborate and expensive apparatus failed to detect even a whiff of ether, raising still more questions about the nature of light and energy but assuring both Michelson and Morley an asterisk in the annals of theoretical physics.
+
+
+Robert Millikan joined Michelson in Chicago despite the modest salary offered, on the promise that Millikan would have ample time to spend on his own research. Instead of blazing his own trail, Millikan found himself preoccupied with academics, authoring several textbooks while Max Planck, Albert Einstein and others transformed the world with their revolutionary ideas about particles and waves. At the age of thirty-eight, Millikan was still an associate professor among a faculty where thirty-two was the average age to become a full professor.
+Einstein’s Annus Mirabilis refocused Millikan, who wrote in his autobiography16, “...by 1906 I knew that I had not yet published results of outstanding importance, and certainly had not attained a position of much distinction as a research physicist.” Motivated less by divine inspiration than ego, Millikan set about to make a name for himself. He decided it would be useful to determine the precise electrical charge of an electron, the sub-atomic particle that the English scientist J.J. Thompson had discovered in 1887. Millikan correctly surmised that finding that value would offer valuable insights into the nature of both matter and electricity.
+For four years Millikan sprayed droplets of oil out of a perfume atomizer. By finding the precise charge that could suspend the oil particles against gravity, he could calculate the charge in the droplets17. He published the results of these experiments in 1910, calculating the charge of a single electron down to a constant value (about 1.602x10-19 Coulomb if you’re counting...). That same year, he was finally awarded a full professorship at the University of Chicago.
+*
+In 1917 Millikan left the University of Chicago for a position at Cal Tech, where he played a key roll in making that institution one of the preeminent schools of science in the world. In 1921, Millikan was named the director of Cal Tech’s Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics.
+Two years later, in the fall of 1923, young Townsend Brown showed up at that very same laboratory – expressing frustration with the lab’s protocols and procedures. By the following spring, Townsend had endured as much he could of the laboratory’s restrictions. What he needed now was a mentor who would listen to his ideas without passing judgment. He hoped to find
+
+
+such a willing ear in Robert Millikan – Cal Tech’s recently anointed Nobel Laureate.
+Townsend set up his experiments in his home laboratory and invited the students and faculty to see a demonstration. When the appointed hour arrived, there were no knocks on the door at the big Pasadena house. Nobody came to see Townsend Brown’s inventions. Back at school, his classmates derided him and made jokes behind his back.
+Among those who ignored his invitation was Dr. Millikan. Townsend set aside his wounded pride and tracked Millikan down in his office on the Cal Tech campus. Button-holed, Millikan reluctantly listened as his student explained the link he had found between electricity and gravity. When Townsend was done, Millikan dismissed him brusquely, saying that what he’d just heard was “utterly impossible and not to be considered.”
+“He admonished me to continue my education before I gave any thought to such things,” Townsend wrote later in his brief autobiography.
+He did not have long to dwell on his disappointment. Despite the rejection of Cal Tech faculty and classmates, Townsend Brown’s discoveries were about to be revealed to the world.
+
+
+9
+
+
+A “Push,” Not A “Pull”
+(1924)
+Photo from the Los Angeles Evening Express May 26, 1924
+One invitee who did show up at Townsend Brown’s show-and-tell was a reporter for the Los Angeles Evening Express. Readers opening their paper on Monday, May 26, 1924, found a headline that read “Claims Gravity Is A Push, Not A Pull:”
+Experiments now going on in a private laboratory at Pasadena by a youth of 18 may revolutionize the whole theory of gravitation as first deduced by Sir Isaac Newton.
+Townsend Brown, a student of 706 Arden Road, has conducted experiments since last September which have convinced him that while there is a law of gravitation, the force is caused by a ‘push’
+
+
+and not by a ‘pull,’ and development of this theory by practical inventions will revolutionize industry.
+Young Brown has his laboratory at home filled with expensive equipment to pursue his investigations. He is a normal, seriousminded young man with no false illusions about his mission in life, but with a desire to become a pioneer along the line of scientific research that will open the way for startling discoveries and inventions.
+STATEMENT OF THEORY
+In plain words, his theory is this: That ether waves from outside space push from all directions against the earth, and against other objects and planets in space, forcing objects the way the wave extends, instead of drawing them, according to the old Newton theory of gravitation.
+By means of his equipment he conducts experiments with the Xray, which is of the same family as light and the ether wave, and by means of which it is possible to test the theory. By means of this machine, he says, that since the X-ray is deflected, the gravity wave, being of the same family, also can be deflected.
+REVOLUTIONARY
+If this theory is proved so thoroughly that it displaces the Newton theory, inventions of the future will revolutionize human industry, according to the young scientist. By deflecting ether waves that are pushing against objects, man can control weight to such an extent that his deflecting machinery would enable him to lift a battleship out of the sea and set it on dry land.
+After hitting the wire services, the story ran in the Zanesville, Ohio, Times Recorder, reminding local readers that...
+Friends of the Brown family will remember that almost from infancy, Townsend has been interested in science and that he was the first person in Zanesville to have a radio, which he installed himself.
+The story even made it into the pages of the New York Times, with a photograph of the “Pasadena student experimenting with equipment with
+
+
+which he deflects the X-ray” and showing Brown holding a Coolidge tube, at the time the most advanced – and expensive – device of its kind, which Townsend’s father purchased for his son. But it was not the ‘X-ray beams’ that Brown was curious about detecting. It was the tube itself – and how it behaved under high voltages.
+The Coolidge tube was asymmetrical, built with a big difference in the size of the positive and negative electrodes. As Beau Kitselman wrote later,18 this difference inspired Brown’s experiments:
+Brown mounted the Coolidge tube in a careful balance, as if it were an astronomical telescope. His idea was to point the tube in different directions and somehow find a variation in the power used by the tube, the strength of the X-Rays generated, or something. He didn’t find what he was looking for, no matter where he aimed his apparatus, no tell-tale differences appeared. But he did find something he wasn’t looking for; he found that the Xray tube generated a thrust, as if it wanted to move.
+He soon learned that the new force was not produced by the XRays, but by the high voltages which they required. Many experiments were necessary to make certain that the force was not one of the known effects of high voltage, and that it is a mass force, like gravity, rather than an area force, like most known electrical forces.
+Kitselman said that these experiments with the Coolidge tube were the first indication that Townsend Brown had found a physical link between two elemental forces, electromagnetism and gravity – just as Einstein had predicted in theory.
+The story in the Evening Express went so far as to speculate that “...control of gravitation might pave the way for a visit to Mars in a few years.” Though his ideas were being picked up on the wire services and printed as far away as New York, Brown still felt the sting of rejection from classmates and faculty at Cal Tech. At the end of his freshman year, he packed up all his gear and returned to Ohio. The following fall, he resumed his studies at Denison University in Granville, where he sought the counsel of the Professor of Astronomy, Dr. Paul Alfred Biefeld.
+
+
+10
+
+
+The Biefeld-Brown Effect
+(1924)
+Swasey Chapel and Observatory – Denison University, Granville Ohio, ca. 1924
+When Denison University opened its new Swasey Observatory in 1911, Professor of Astronomy Dr. Paul Alfred Biefeld was named its Director.
+Biefeld earned his B.S. in electrical engineering at the University of Wisconsin in 1894, after which – like Robert Millikan – he pursued graduate studies in Europe. He earned his Ph.D. from the Zurich Polytechnic Institute in 1900. When Biefeld’s name finds its way into publication, he is often dubiously described as a colleague or classmate of Albert Einstein, though it is unlikely that the two had anything more than the passing acquaintance of students attending a large university at roughly the same time. The only thing that Einstein and Biefeld really had in common was music. They both played the violin.
+Einstein failed his first entrance examination for the Zurich Polytechnic Institute in 1894, was finally admitted in 1896, and graduated as a secondary school teacher of mathematics and physics in 1900 – the year that Biefeld earned his doctorate. Biefeld remained at Zurich Polytechnic for six years, while Einstein left academia and found work as a clerk at the patent office in Berne, Switzerland. Despite scant evidence that the two
+
+
+actually knew each other, 74-year-old Dr. Biefeld told a newspaper in 1941 that “When Einstein would forget to go to a class, he would come and borrow my notes to get caught up on what he had missed. He was rather careless in his appearance and made no show of himself. Yet he had strong ideas and wasn’t afraid to speak them out.”
+In 1924, Cal Tech dropout Townsend Brown showed up at Denison University chastened by his experience in Pasadena and determined to devise the sort of practical invention that would demonstrate a link between electricity and gravity. He found a sympathetic ear in Dr. Paul Biefeld:
+Dr. Biefeld had been interested in the subject of gravitation for many years. This interest probably coincided with Einstein’s interest in the Unified Field Theory and in the new concept of Relativity which was gaining recognition at that time. Biefeld believed in the possibility of some connection with gravitation. As he expressed it, “I am constantly on the look-out for something that might represent an ‘electrodynamic-gravitational’ coupling.”
+A pivotal exchange took place when Brown asked Biefeld, “If a coupling did exist, what instrument might it resemble?” Biefeld thought for a few minutes and then answered without equivocation, “The capacitor.”
+A capacitor stores and discharges electrical energy. It typically consists of two charged metal plates – the electrodes – that are separated by an insulating substance called a dielectric, which cause the electrodes to absorb their charge without conducting it between them. A typical electrical circuit has anywhere from one to hundreds of capacitors, each capable of storing a different level of charge and discharging that charge according to the requirements of the circuit.
+In this telling of the tale, Brown suggests that it was Biefeld who first suggested that the mechanism for the transmission of gravitation might resemble the common capacitor. But Brown had already observed the effect in his Coolidge X-Ray tube, which, with its asymmetrical electrodes, acted as precisely the kind of capacitor Biefeld was supposedly proposing.
+In 1977 Townsend Brown wrote in his brief memoir,
+The basic Biefeld-Brown effect is quite simple. It is manifested as a departure from the Coulomb Law of electrostatic attraction, in that the opposite forces are not equal. The negative electrode
+
+
+appears to chase the positive electrode so that there is a net force of the system... in the negative-to-positive direction. 19
+By “departure from Coulomb Law,” Brown is referring to the electrical theory that opposite charges attract and like charges repel, as first articulated in 1785 by the French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb.20 Under normal circumstances, oppositely charged particles or surfaces of equal mass would attract each other equally. But the behavior Brown observed in his Coolidge tube – where the negative charge is slightly greater than the positive charge – the negatively charged surface is drawn toward the positive. Or as Brown put it, “the negative electrode appears to chase the positive electrode.”
+There is not much more in the record about the relationship between Paul Biefeld and Townsend Brown, or how the Biefeld-Brown effect came to be so named. What seems likely is that after his unpleasant experience at Cal Tech, Townsend Brown sought cover for his ideas – by attaching a credentialed elder’s name to a discovery that could just as easily have been named wholly for himself. Calling his own discovery ‘Biefeld-Brown’ may be the first example of a practice that would recur throughout his life: hiding in plain sight.
+
+
+11
+
+
+“He Made Things Up”
+(Notes from the Rabbit Hole #3)
+“Imagination is the only weapon in the war with reality.”
+– Lewis Carroll - Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
+When I called the campus of Denison University in the fall of 2004 and spoke to archivist Heather Lyle, I was hardly the first to inquire about Townsend Brown. Ms. Lyle did not hesitate to cast aspersions into the vacuum where the details of his life should be found.
+“He made things up,” Ms. Lyle told me.
+“How’s that?”
+“We have files on him. These queries come up frequently, because apparently he was not very truthful in things that he said about himself, and gave the impression of a lot contact here at Denison. He even claimed to have been faculty or staff here when he really wasn’t even a student, and claimed to have worked with Professor Paul Biefeld, who hardly even knew him. I mean, he just made a lot of claims that were false. People are constantly contacting us, so we have a whole file ready to refute these claims.”
+I asked if she would make me a copy of that file.
+“Oh no,” Heather said. “It’s pretty extensive, so I’m not willing to do that” – at which point I started making plans to visit Granville to inspect the file myself. Before hanging up I pressed a little further.
+“The effect that Brown discovered, he named it the Biefeld-Brown Effect. But you’re telling me he had little contact with Biefeld?”
+“He made up a lot of things,” Heather giggled as though she was revealing a secret. “That’s the impression that we all have. There is a kind of a detailed history of the various scams that he pulled based on various letters and people that were ripped off by him and that sort of thing.”
+“If that’s all in your file, I can hardly wait to see it....”
+In the final week of October – as the Boston Red Sox were winning their first World Series in 86 years – I descended on Denison University with Townsend Brown’s daughter Linda, who maintained her anonymity by
+
+
+masquerading as my research assistant ‘Elizabeth Helen Drake.’ In a conference room at the university library, Heather Lyle let us examine her file on Thomas Townsend Brown.
+The file opens with a print-out of an email from former archivist Cara Gilgenback that circulated around the campus in 1999:
+Those of you who have been here for some time may have already run into reference questions involving:
+-T. Townsend Brown (purportedly a student at DU in the 1920s).
+- Dr. Paul A. Biefeld (physics faculty member at DU, 1911-1934, resident astronomer during that period).
+- “The Biefeld-Brown effect” (supposedly a joint research project between the two men conducted at DU, which resulted in a significant discovery about anti-gravity).
+This year I’ve received three requests for information on this topic, two of them in the past week. I asked the Physics Dept. for help since the archives yield little on Biefeld, nothing at all on T. Townsend Brown, and nothing at all on this so-called BiefeldBrown effect.
+I want to let you all know that the Physics Dept. feels that Brown’s credentials as a physicist are suspect. They cannot find any documentation linking Biefeld and Brown either at Denison or outside of Denison. There are no known published papers or monographs within the scholarly arena on the Biefeld-Brown effect. I am compiling the few popular/alternate press accounts I can locate.
+Also, I was unable to find any evidence that Brown ever attended Denison. I found lots of information on him on the Internet (mostly on UFO sites), including a biography I believe to be bogus.
+The reason I’m telling you all this is so that you can deal with researchers who come asking about the topic. According to Mike Mickelson, the Physics Dept. has received hundreds of requests for info on this over the years, and interest does not appear to be flagging. You could spend a lot of time searching indices and other reference tools on this topic and would find next to nothing useful.
+
+
+I would suggest that you refer interested persons to me. I’m compiling a file of relevant info that might be useful to these people. I’m also planning to write to the Naval Research Lab (where Brown reportedly worked) to see if they have any records.
+Another email in the file from a “former DU faculty member” from August 2001 attests to the scams Heather Lyle alluded to:
+[Townsend Brown arrived in Meadville, PA] in 1962 or 1963 to start a company making ozone generators and an electronic levitation system. Supposedly for use by satellites (and purported to be one of the possible systems used by UFOs). He arrived in a shiny black Cadillac equipped with a radio telephone system (very uncommon in those days). He visited a number of Meadville’s wealthy citizens, concentrating on the elderly, especially widows. A number of these individuals invested in his “new venture.” He established charge accounts all over town.
+This email describes two devices Townsend demonstrated in his sales pitch, an “ozone generator” and a “levitation device” (“. . . like a large pizza dish . . .”). The email concludes:
+A short time after this presentation, Brown vanished, leaving bills at all the places he had established charge accounts, including over $500 at a small grocery store. I don’t know how hard the stockholders tried to find him, but they were unsuccessful.
+Also in the file are two letters from another, still earlier Denison University archivist Florence Hoffman, who says Townsend Brown was...
+...a student at Doane Academy in 1922 and 1923. Brown is listed as a graduate of Doane Academy in June 1923. The Denison University Catalog lists him as a member of the Freshman Class in 1924/25. He did not return the following year and I do not know where he may have completed his education.
+We have never been able to find any evidence of a collaboration by Biefeld and Brown on any project, and Biefeld’s son (now deceased) told us that his father knew Brown only slightly during the latter’s student days but never worked with him at any time.
+Other correspondence in the Denison file suggests that Biefeld’s family in the 1940s knew nothing about Townsend Brown or the effect that bore the
+
+
+two men’s names. In November 1956, UFO investigator Leon Davidson apparently interested in NICAP (about which more later21), wrote to Biefeld’s son Dr. L. P. Biefeld asking about his father’s relationship to Townsend Brown. L. P. Biefeld replied:
+My father never did collaborate with Mr. Brown in a scientific sense. Since Mr. Brown was extremely interested in experimentation in the field of physics and astronomy, he hung around the Physics Department and the Observatory quite a bit and talked to father often. My father was not too impressed with his ideas.
+L.P. Biefeld also corresponded with science journalist Gaston Burridge22, who speculated in the 1950s about anti-gravity propulsion systems, telling Burridge:
+Your mention of the ‘Biefeld-Brown effect’ is news to me. I never heard my father speak of this effect. I am very surprised to hear of this and would be very interested to know where you obtained information regarding this so-called effect.
+*
+During the time in 2004 when I was digging into Denison University’s unflattering file on Townsend Brown, Linda Brown and I had been trying unsuccessfully to obtain military records for her father’s Navy service that began with his voluntary enlistment in 193023. That quest delivered its first results just after our visit to Granville, when a thick manilla envelope arrived in my mail. Inside were Townsend Brown’s naval records – or, at least those records that were not entirely classified, nor referenced anything that was classified24.
+Among the Naval records was an affidavit from someone who had visited Townsend’s home laboratory in Zanesville in August 1930. The visitor had traveled “at the request of Mr. Thomas Townsend Brown... to personally conduct tests and examine certain apparatus and setups thereof and act as witness therefore with respect to the operativeness of said apparatus.”
+The visitor then describes equipment that consisted of “two principal or essential parts, a stator and a rotor – a generator-and-motor system based on what is now known as “The Biefeld-Brown effect.” The visitor testifies:
+
+
+It is apparent that systematic variations occur in the output of the apparatus which are not to be accounted for and not localized within the system itself. Though the phenomenon is not understood at the present time, it is quite certain that the above-named variations are caused by forces external to the system.
+The visitor is describing the effect Brown had first noticed in his X-ray spectrometer, the effect which led him to conclude that “a radiation (other than light) prevailed in the Universe, independent of our Solar system” the observation triggered his conclusion that “gravity is a push, not a pull.”
+The visitor concludes that what he has observed in the young man’s laboratory...
+...is novel and valuable; leading to probable identification and measurement of forces hitherto not recognized in physical science or astronomy.
+The visitor signed the affidavit: Paul Alfred Biefeld.
+
+
+12
+
+
+Can We Talk?
+(1964)
+Linda returned Howie’s ring when he joined the National Guard in May. “He is such a good guy,” she wrote in her journal, “and I love his family, but if I stay with him, how long will it be before I get bored? He will want to get married, I know.” The girl who had lived in forty-some different places before graduating high school added, “I just can’t imagine staying in the same town for the rest of my life.”
+True to his word, Morgan was “around.” He’d drop by for a visit at Ashlawn, occasionally taking Linda for a ride on his motorcycle. Most of what Linda knew about him, she learned from gossipy girlfriends.
+Like the last Friday in August, when Morgan attended the Philadelphia Folk Festival and invited some friends to spend the night on his family’s farm. Next morning, Morgan’s father found several couples in various stages of undress nestled in the hayloft. “I won’t have this sort of activity here,” he bellowed. “You have a reputation to think about and this is never going to happen again!”
+Later that same Saturday, the phone at Ashlawn rang. Linda was surprised to hear Morgan’s voice on the other end.
+“Can I come over?” he asked – “so sweetly,” she wrote in her journal, “I am sure that I am just an afterthought to him, but he has made me very happy.” Half an hour later, Morgan’s father’s car pulled into the driveway at Ashlawn. Morgan emerged with a guitar, a towel, a toothbrush, and a comb.
+“I’m moving in for the day,” he announced to a bemused Linda.
+Later that afternoon, Morgan told her about the party in the barn. “I guess my Dad figures that you are a better influence on me!”
+Linda studied Morgan as he turned and walked toward the pool, noticing how much fun he was to watch, how tall and handsome he was. “Not if I can help it,” she thought to herself.
+As they lounged around the pool, Morgan struggled with the guitar he’d bought the night before – a Gibson J200 jumbo flattop, just like the one Elvis played. They raided a nearby strawberry patch and in her journal,
+
+
+Linda confessed, “I flirted outrageously with him, but I was so shy I don’t think he even noticed.”
+Back at the pool, Morgan swept Linda into his arms. “He was going to throw me into the pool,” she wrote in her journal, “But I hung on so hard he couldn’t pull himself away from me, and I pulled him into the water with me.”
+Morgan sputtered to the surface. “Damn,” he laughed, “you are one strong girl!”
+Before the sun set, Morgan was gone.
+“Damn Amazon!” Linda moped, “that’s what he’s probably thinking! That was the only move he made on me the entire day! Here he is a champion wrestler, and he can’t even rip me loose long enough to keep me from pulling him in the pool with me. He loves to dance, and I can barely do a waltz. His favorite song is Dancing in the Streets and I just can’t seem to keep up with him. He loves that big guitar and I can’t begin to strum it. He can sing, and I am just too shy to even try. I just know that I am so drawn to him that I can barely breathe when he stands next to me. And he hasn’t even kissed me!”
+Linda’s journals from the summer of ’64 also reflect on the socio-political climate of the time. Race riots in Philadelphia that summer prompted a curious observation from her father: “Daddy commented that he felt it was humankind’s response to an outside force that is affecting all of us. He says it’s the same type of force that has probably encouraged revolutions and wars... It makes us all feel like fighting. I dunno.... Those are not exactly the kinds of emotions that I have been entertaining lately.”
+Sunday morning Linda wrote, “I guess that Morgan has made things even worse. Word from the grapevine is that last evening he took a girl skinny dipping in the farm pond, and then made the mistake of using his Dad’s car to drive back to the main house to get some towels. His Father stormed out of the house to ‘pull the keys,’ only to discover a naked girl dripping wet in the front seat.” All Linda could think of was how jealous she was. “I wondered if I had to stand in line – or didn’t he think of me at all in a sexual way? Morgan and I,” she wrote with sad resignation “live in an entirely different reality.”
+
+
+Linda expected the last Sunday in August was going to be “a quiet day.” Hattie, the Ashlawn housekeeper and her husband Taft, the butler, had the house “looking wonderful” prior to their departure for a vacation. Taft and Charles – taking a break from his driving duties – were working in the garden; Mother was reading and “Daddy was working at his desk in the study.”
+And as for herself, Linda wrote, “I was purely agitated.”
+As Sunday evening settled in, the big house was quiet. Linda, still feeling restless, had retired to the rec room to watch an old movie on the TV when she heard an unexpected knock at the door. When she opened it, there was Morgan, whispering, “I know it’s late, but can we talk for a while?”
+“A while” drifted on until four the following morning. Lying at the edge of the pool, their legs dangling in the cool water under the hazy summer’s night sky, they stared up at the moon and stars, they spun into an expansive dialog about the planets, the stars, the vastness of space and even the possibility of time travel.
+Morgan talked about his family. His parents had drifted apart when his younger sister drowned in a swimming pool accident. His mother never recovered from her grief and blamed his father; Now his older brother was also trapped in an unhappy marriage.
+“I just don’t think marriage is in the cards for me,” Morgan said. “I’m never going to take my father’s place in society. I just don’t want the big house and mortgage. I don’t want to have to stay in one place except for two weeks every year.”
+Linda could tell that the very thought made him restless and uncomfortable. She smiled at Morgan and looked away.
+“What do you want, Morgan,” Linda asked quietly, looking skyward.
+Startled at the question, Morgan’s answer came out in a rush. “I’ll go to college,” Morgan said, “and then I want travel and adventure. It’s weird, but I have this very clear vision of myself, I don’t know where, or when, but I’m in someplace that’s mountainous, and really rocky. No trees anywhere. I can see small pebbles on the trail tumble away from my boots. It’s strange because I don’t know of any place like that around here. I don’t even think it’s in this country, and the vision gives me this overwhelming sense of danger and excitement. I don’t know where that picture comes from, but
+
+
+somehow, that’s the answer to your question. That’s what I imagine for myself, sometime in the near future.”
+Absorbing the curious majesty of Morgan’s vision, Linda warmed herself with the thought that these were not the sort of things that he shared with those other girls. She offered a vision of her own.
+“You just have to listen to your own soul about these things,” she said, “and somehow, you’ll just know what to do. I have my own peculiar premonitions. Sometimes I can just clearly see myself riding horse-back over golden hills, past strange, gnarled trees. I’ve even drawn the trees in art class, but the teacher says I should stick to reality, that trees like that don’t exist anywhere in nature. I don’t know where that picture comes from any better than you know where yours comes from. But I know my trees are real, and I’m sure your pebbles are real, too.”
+“Amazing...” was all Morgan could manage to say.
+The spell was broken by the sudden ringing of a telephone. Linda sprang to answer it before the entire household was awakened. On the other end of the line, Linda’s older brother Joseph was calling from Oregon, and he wanted to speak with his mother. Linda set the phone down and whispered to Morgan, “wait, please wait...” Morgan just wiggled his fingers at her, gesturing a silent “goodbye...”
+Linda tip-toed into the house to awaken her mother, who took the call on the phone by her bed. By the time she got back to the pool, Morgan had slipped away. In the distance, she heard the trailing rumble of his motorcycle.
+Returning to the house, Linda noticed Morgan’s big Gibson, still leaning near the door where he’d left it earlier.
+
+
+13
+
+
+A Rare Force of Nature
+(1964)
+When Linda answered the phone in the greenhouse at 4 AM, there was no friendly “hello” or a polite “sorry to bother you...” The voice on the other end just asked, “Hi, can I speak to Mom?” which left Linda wondering, “who is this??” It had been so long since she’d even heard from Joseph Brown, much less actually talked to him, that she’d almost forgotten that she had an older brother.
+Joseph Townsend Brown was twelve years older than Linda, who was a toddler when the family lived in the tropical wilderness of the Hawaiian island of Kauai in the late 1940s. When the family returned to the mainland in the early 1950s, Joseph went off to college and served a stint in the Air Force. Simmering tension between Joseph and his father left Joseph out of touch with the family. As she returned to the main house, Linda figured it had been at least two years since she had heard the sound of Joseph’s voice.
+Linda found Josephine hanging up the phone, sitting up among the overstuffed pillows and covers of a four-poster bed that practically filled the room. Josephine patted her hand on the mattress beside her, and Linda climbed onto the big bed and snuggled in with her mother.
+“What did Joseph want,” Linda asked her mother. “And why was it so important that he was calling in the middle of the night?”
+“He says he’s found the girl he wants to marry”, Josephine said. “He wants to give her the diamond ring I promised him years ago.” Realizing how long it had been since she, too, had spoken to her son, Josephine laughed self-consciously, “It took a diamond to get him to call.” Linda detected the sadness beneath her mother’s good nature. She also knew that even if Joseph’s call had bothered her, she would never have mentioned it.
+The ring that Joseph was asking about was a family heirloom that Josephine had hung onto even through the most threadbare of times. It broke Linda’s heart knowing that her mother was being asked to part with a treasure that Joseph would slip on the finger of a woman Josephine had never even met.
+“What’s the girl’s name,” Linda asked.
+
+
+“I don’t know, Sweetie. He didn’t tell me that. He just asked me to send him the ring.”
+Linda’s thoughts drifted through the hours she’d just spent by the pool with Morgan.
+“Momma,” Linda blurted, “How did you know that Daddy was going to be the one true love in your life?”
+As the pale predawn light filtered into the bedroom, Linda’s mother put her arm around her daughter and told her of the day in 1926 when young Thomas Townsend Brown took young Josephine Beale sailing on Ohio’s Buckeye Lake.
+“I thought that he would be talkative and egotistical, but he was quiet and very shy – completely different from what I expected him to be! And he had those crystal blue eyes that were just wonderful! All of my friends had painted this picture of a womanizing playboy, but all those preconceptions just dissolved that afternoon.”
+Linda giggled at the thought of anyone calling her father a playboy. Mother and daughter hushed themselves like a couple of teenagers at a slumber party. “Mom fluffed up her big pillow and I snuggled in beside her,” Linda recalled. “We continued in a whisper, and I remember the sun was just beginning to break.”
+“Was that glimpse of Daddy really all you needed?”
+“Sweetie, I guess that it’s different with every person. I pushed away from that dock believing that I was in the company of a spoiled cad. By the time we sailed back to the dock I was thoroughly convinced that he was a rare force of nature and already the love of my life.
+
+
+14
+
+
+We Will Just Sail Away
+(1927)
+Josephine Beale ca. 1928
+Josephine Beale was a pretty, slender girl with soft, dark blonde hair, an enthusiastic smile and blue-grey eyes, a junior at Lash High School in Zanesville. She had seen Townsend Brown around town, heard people refer to him as “the second coming of Einstein,” and knew that he was the heir to one of the town’s more prominent families.
+Josephine caught Townsend’s eye while performing in a school play. She didn’t know what to make of it when her gossipy girlfriends mentioned that Townsend Brown had been asking about her.
+Josephine heard all kinds of stories: That he owned his own cruiser out on Buckeye Lake – a refitted pilot boat called the Viking. His devilishly
+
+
+handsome friend Paul Grey had a reputation with the girls. Josephine’s girlfriends giggled whenever they mentioned Paul Grey and Townsend Brown. Now the gossip mill was starting to grind on Josephine Beale, who did all she could to feign disinterest.
+As the Beale family gathered for dinner one night, Josephine’s father Clifford Beale – a prosperous businessman with an avocation in woodcraft – mentioned an inquiry he’d had that day about a carpentry project.
+“I had an interesting visitor today,” Dr. Beale started. “That young man Townsend Brown came to ask what I would charge to build a curio cabinet for his mother’s birthday.”
+Dr. Beale watched his daughter hold her breath.
+“He asked about you,” Dr. Beale said. “Well, more precisely, he asked my permission to call on you.”
+“Poppa, are you serious? He came here? Oh Poppa! You don’t know what everyone is saying about him! I can’t believe that he would have the nerve to come straight to you like this!”
+Dr. Beale delighted in his daughter’s reaction. “Don’t be so quick to believe what others say,” he said. “This fellow made quite an effort to ask my permission in the most proper way. He stressed that you could select a chaperone if you wanted to. But I don’t think that will be necessary.”
+
+
+Townsend’s gaff-rigged sailboat, the TomCat, on Buckeye Lake in Ohio.
+Josephine and Townsend’s first date was a picnic on the shore of Buckeye Lake in the spring of 1927. In a fitting prelude to their future together, Townsend showed up late, having found it difficult to pull himself away from his laboratory. Josephine acted indifferent when he finally arrived in the Brown family’s chauffeur-driven Packard.
+Their second date was more memorable. It began with Townsend showing Josephine around his private laboratory, which she found impressive even if she understood little of what he was showing her. After another chauffeured drive out to Buckeye Lake, he took her sailing in his gaff-rigged catboat, the aptly named TomCat. Josephine tried to tease him about the name, but Townsend just laughed and swore that was the name of the boat when he’d bought it.
+It was a perfect day for sailing, warm and clear with a light zephyr chasing over the surface of the lake. She was new to sailing but took
+
+
+naturally to the trim wooden boat; Townsend showed her the ropes, and even gave her a turn at the tiller.
+“See that area over there, the ripples on the water?” Townsend said. “There’s more wind over there, try to steer toward it.” And when she did, the little boat picked up the fresh breeze and accelerated over the surface.
+The visit to the lab and the adventure on the lake gave Josephine a better sense of her suitor. “We talked about everything that day,” Josephine later told Linda. “I kept watching him and noticing how wonderful and blue his eyes were. He was very handsome and so tanned and when he smiled at me I just lit up inside. My previous impressions of him just melted away that day.”
+Tacking toward the far shore of the lake, Townsend told Josephine about dreams he’d been having and the ideas that came to him in his sleep that inspired him to experiment in his laboratory.
+“He didn’t have anyone who would just listen to him, so that was my role from the first,” Josephine told Linda. “I didn’t understand half of what he was trying to explain to me. It took a couple of weeks before it began to sink in. I just knew that it was the most important information that I probably would ever hear, and here was a man who was going to need me.”
+As the little sailboat skimmed across the lake, Josephine tried to lighten the mood.
+“OK, Mr. Smarty, if you could travel through time, what do you think you will find in the future? Will there be more wars? What will become of Mankind in the future?”
+The young dreamer with the tiller in one hand and the mainsheet in the other knew it was time to share the vision he had seen in his dreams.
+“We will just sail away,” he said.
+“What do you mean?”
+“Someday, men will travel in space, just as easily as we are sailing now. Great ships will silently push away from the Earth just as easily as this sailboat pushed away from the dock.”
+Josephine lingered in silence, listening to the water lapping against the hull. She closed her eyes and tried to imagine their little boat sailing across
+
+
+the void of space. In her heart she knew she was hearing something not only strange and fantastic, but also true.
+She opened her eyes and smiled. “Mr. Brown, you are different, aren’t you?”
+Townsend smiled back.
+“That was pretty much it for me,” Josephine recalled. “I was a gone goose!”
+When they got back to the yacht club, Townsend took Josephine home, and left her on the doorstep without so much as a kiss on her cheek.
+“That night, I couldn’t sleep,” Josephine recounted. “So I knew what I was going through!”
+“Yes,” Linda thought to herself, as she listened to her mother that morning as the sun rose over Ashlawn. In her tangled feelings for Morgan, Linda knew exactly what her mother was talking about.
+
+
+15
+
+
+A Pineapple and A Pea
+(Notes from the Rabbit Hole #4)
+“Only a few find the way, some don’t recognize it when they do – some... don’t ever want to.”
+– Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
+More than a decade after I first heard and wrote the words, “We will just sail away...” I still don’t know if the vision Townsend Brown shared with Josephine as they sailed across Buckeye Lake is scientifically viable, but the vision is hard to ignore.
+Rereading Townsend’s prediction reminded me of a passage from The Boy Who Invented Television, my biography of Philo T. Farnsworth.
+In the final years of his life, long after he was done with television, Philo Farnsworth turned his attention to the riddle of controlled nuclear fusion: How do you bottle a star?
+My journey to that riddle started when I first heard of Philo Farnsworth in the summer of 1973. As I was getting ready to relocate to Los Angeles to seek my fortune in the TeeVee business, I picked up a magazine25 with a story about Farnsworth. I was surprised I’d never heard the name, nor had any idea that the industry I wanted to work in could trace its origins to a sketch he drew for his high school science teacher in 1922 – when he was just 14 years old. The imagery in the article – photographs of televisions and cameras from the 1920s and 1930s – was all new to me. I wondered why I’d never seen any of it before, as I had seen photos of Edison with his first phonograph or the Wright Brothers hovering above Kitty Hawk in the original ‘Flyer.’
+Later that summer I took a trip up the Pacific Coast Highway and stopped to visit a public access TV advocate in Santa Cruz who called himself ‘Johnny Videotape.’ Johnny was friends with Phil Gietzen, who edited the magazine where I’d found the article about Farnsworth. Gietzen knew Philo T. Farnsworth III, eldest son of the TV inventor, who told Gietzen stories about his father’s pursuit of controlled nuclear fusion in the 1950s and 60s.
+
+
+Nuclear fusion is the same process that powers our sun and all the stars. If fusion could be harnessed on Earth in the same manner as its evil twin nuclear fission – it could offer a clean, safe, and virtually unlimited source of electrical power. But there’s a catch: Just like a star, a fusion reaction is so hot – millions of degrees Centigrade – that it cannot be allowed to touch the walls of its container. That would either destroy the reactor vessel or cool and extinguish the reaction.
+This is the celestial magic that Philo T. Farnsworth – who “breathed life into all our living-room dreams26” – tried to perform in the 1960’s.
+In 2022, when I returned to the Townsend Brown story after my long hiatus, I recalled a passage from the Farnsworth bio that describes his vision of how fusion energy would change the world:
+He believed that fusion would alter the basic relationship that hinders current space travel – the weight ratio between launch vehicle and payload. He used the analogy of a pineapple and a pea: Today, what little space travel we do is conducted with payloads the size of a pea that are lifted into Earth orbit by launch vehicles the size of a pineapple. The reason for this inefficiency is because so much fuel has to be consumed in the initial thrust just to get the rest of the fuel off the launchpad. Farnsworth predicted the reversal of these ratios, with small fusion-engines gently lifting enormous payloads into orbit. He predicted that once in orbit, fusion-powered spacecraft could make it to Mars on as much nuclear fuel as could be stored in a tank the size of a fountain pen.
+In the realm of interstellar travel, Farnsworth hinted at the truly daring cosmology behind his fusion work. He dared to question our whole concept of distance as it relates to travel through outer space, asking aloud on many occasions, “Why do we assume that we have to exert so much energy to cross something which is actually nothing?”
+Farnsworth proved his unorthodox theories with the Fusor – a device not much larger than a soccer ball. But he stopped short of his goal of producing useful energy. He became suspicious of his corporate benefactors and withheld certain information. The funding ran out and the research ended in 1967.
+
+
+And then he took the secret to his early grave27.
+I was first drawn to Philo Farnsworth because he invented electronic video. The harpoon didn’t sink in until I started hearing about his unfinished work in fusion energy.
+Thirty years later, that chance encounter in Santa Cruz led me to Townsend Brown.
+Now here I am – another twenty years farther on – seeing the similarity between Philo Farnsworth’s ‘pineapple and pea’ scenario and what Townsend told Josephine: that voyagers of the future will just “push away from the Earth as easily as we pushed away from the dock.”
+And wondering if the combination of fusion energy and gravity control offers a glimpse into the Universe of Magical Things.
+Philo T. Farnsworth and an early ‘bell jar’ iteration of his Fusor, ca. 1959
+
+
+16
+
+
+A Great Disappointment
+(1926)
+The staff of L.K. Brown’s offices in Zanesville ca. 1930. Townsend on the far left, his father third from right, Grace Redmond to his right.
+Townsend and Josephine kept their romance to themselves for more than a year, not only to keep Josephine’s girlfriends’ tongues from wagging, but also to avoid any interference from Townsend and Brown families.
+Townsend’s mother Mary – ‘Mame’ to friends and family – had already selected a bride for her only son, a young woman from her own patrician circles, Miss Cornelia Smith. Mame and Cornelia’s mother were already making plans for a big church wedding that would surely be the highlight of the Zanesville social season. Recalling her own wedding – attended by more than 600 guests when she married Lewis Brown in 1898 – Mame expected nothing less for their son and heir.
+Townsend, happily exploring the mysteries of the universe in his laboratory, hadn’t really given Miss Cornelia much thought. He was quite certain that Josephine was the woman he could confide in and trust to protect his innermost secrets.
+
+
+Townsend’s laboratory was funded entirely by his father’s largesse and operated in a corner of the elder Brown’s offices in downtown Zanesville. Townsend would have been left entirely to his own devices were it not for the meddling of one Grace Redmond, his father’s secretary and the unofficial holder of the purse-strings for the various family enterprises. Miss Redman did not share her boss’s deference to his son’s scientific inquiries. She considered the younger Brown’s experiments to be “utter nonsense,” and never missed an opportunity to make Townsend beg her for the funds he needed to purchase equipment and supplies.
+In her churlish way, Grace Redmond embodied the expectations descending onto the shoulders of T. B. Townsend’s only grandson. On his twenty-first birthday, Townsend received a letter from his Uncle Orville, Mame’s brother:
+Dear Nephew,
+You are now twenty-one years old and don’t want to be a chauffeur or a loafer all your life. You will never be happy unless you get into active business so you will be independent. Your parents are not well, you will not always have them with you, so you should start now to earn something, while you have the benefit of their advice, instead of everlastingly spending and looking for ways to spend money.
+We want you to distinctly understand that all of the families have nothing but the kindest wishes for your success. You must realize that you are the only man out of the three families to hold together the business and financial interests that your uncles and your father will leave. Naturally, all of us wish that you will be a successful businessman. You are now of the age and you should appreciate what your father and mother have done for you in the way of education. Now it is up to you to repay them and the families that are interested in you, to show them whether or not you are capable. Unless you tie down to business at once, you will be a great disappointment to us all.
+Kindly keep this letter for future reference. You may thank me in later years for writing you as I have, as it is all intended for your personal good.
+
+
+Your affectionate uncle,
+Orville N. Townsend
+Rather than tying himself down to the family business, Townsend was pondering his escape from the midwestern confines of Zanesville.
+First, there was the matter of a wedding to attend to.
+
+
+17
+
+
+Wagner In The Trees
+(1928)
+Josephine and Townsend on their honeymoon at Green Cove Springs, Florida.
+On September 8, 1928, more than one-hundred guests gathered for what they thought was just another late-summer picnic and swimming party at Hawthorne Farm – the Brown family’s estate on the outskirts of Zanesville. Some were still dripping wet, fresh out of the pool, when the sound of Wagner’s wedding march suddenly began to radiate from loudspeakers that Townsend had hidden among the pine trees.
+The ensuing nuptials were described in the society column of the next day’s Zanesville Times Recorder:
+Surrounded by members of their own families and intimate friends and in the midst of tall trees through which the setting sun shone in benediction, Miss Josephine Beale, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. C.A. Beale of Merrick Avenue and Townsend Brown, only son of Mr. and Mrs. Lewis K. Brown of Adair Avenue, were united in marriage, Thursday afternoon at the Brown farm on the Newark Road.
+
+
+The marriage was to have been a surprise, but some of the many birds who live in the trees on the Brown farm must have heard the young couple whispering their secret and made haste to tell it to their friends for everyone was expecting “something to happen.”
+After a delightful picnic supper had been served to the guests who numbered over five score the music of the Lohengrin wedding march was heard faintly at first, as though from a great distance, then as the voices of the guests were hushed, more clearly. The music seemed to be wafted from the tops of the trees by angel voices in the most entrancing fashion and had been so arranged by the young bride and groom and as the guests all arose and moved up to meet them, the young couple appeared walking together over the brink of the wooded hill and proceeded to the place where Dr. Austin M. Courtenay of Delaware, a personal friend of the Brown family and a former pastor of Grace church awaited them.
+Dr. Courtenay read the beautiful ring service of the Methodist Episcopal Church without a book and made it seem by so doing a peculiarly intimate and personal service performed for those whom he loved.
+It was a picture seen by those present which will never be forgotten. The youth of the principals, the beauty of the woods and sunset sky and the solemn hush which stole over the scene as they made the responses uniting them for life, all created an atmosphere of dignity mingled with simplicity which was most appealing.
+The bride was attired in a simple grey traveling frock with little grey hat and shoes and hose to match and carried a huge shower bouquet of pink and lavender flowers with a long pink and lavender shower. She was graduated last year from Senior High School and is a member of the Putnam Presbyterian church. She is unusually popular with her classmates and members of the younger social set.
+Townsend Brown is one of the most interesting young men in Zanesville and has been widely known as an inventor and experimenter and has made some unusual discoveries which will work changes in theories of gravitation and electrical mechanism.
+
+
+He is engaged with his father in the sand business, but his chief interest is in his laboratory where his research and experiments are conducted.
+After two weeks in the East the young bride and groom will live at the Brown home on Adair avenue, although they plan during fine weather to spend a great deal of their time at the Brown farm, where Mr. Brown has built himself a little house right by the edge of the large swimming pool. Both Mr. and Mrs. Brown are greatly interested in swimming and water sports and out-of-doors life of all kinds, and the farm offers an alluring spot on which to spend an early fall honeymoon.
+The newlyweds spent their wedding night at Hawthorne, in the little poolside cottage that would serve as their first home together, which they dubbed ‘El Nido’ – ‘The Nest.’
+Before departing for their honeymoon in New York and Florida, Townsend presented Josephine with a gift: A mint-green ceramic teapot, hand-painted with delicate, cursive gold lettering that read simply ‘El Nido.’ As Josephine placed the little green teapot on a shelf, she had no way of knowing how many different shelves she would place it on in the years ahead.
+
+
+18
+
+
+Anniversaries
+(1964)
+Linda Brown had her own reasons for remembering the date of her parents’ wedding. On September 8, 1964, her parents went into the city to celebrate their 36th anniversary. Linda stayed home in the solitude of Ashlawn, preparing for her departure the next day for a college in Western Virginia called Southern Seminary.
+When it was founded in 1867 as the Bowling Green Female Seminary, the word ‘seminary’ just meant a school for girls or women. Now it was a finishing school – a place for young women to find a suitable husband and take their place in proper society. Linda chose Southern Sem only for its outstanding equitation program, having loved all things hoof-and-bridle since she was nine years old. She wasn’t interested in the school’s social pretensions. She just wanted to spend as much of the next two years as she could in the company of horses.
+Linda expected her parents would be leaving Ashlawn soon, too. Her father had honored the bargain he made with Josephine when they moved in: that they would stay put long enough for Linda to finish her last two years of high school in a single location.
+“Hattie and Taft were still on vacation,” Linda recalled, “and I knew that Dad had arranged for them to take another position when they got back.” Indeed, after Josephine found a situation for them with the neighboring Asquith family, Townsend informed Mr. Asquith that he had been paying “his couple” a sum that was double their actual salary at the time – and had promised them a substantial raise as well. When Mr. Asquith accepted the terms, “Hattie and Taft were beside themselves” at the prospect of their new positions.
+“I was alone in that big house,” Linda recalled of her last night at Ashlawn. “Charles had driven them into town, left the car with Dad and took a train to Washington. I’d already said my goodbyes to him, and he slipped a hundred-dollar bill into my hand, saying ‘This is for anything extra you might need.’ I didn’t actually stop to think that it might be years before I would see him again.”
+
+
+Linda wandered around the house, “just sort of saying goodbye to everything. That’s a trick I’d learned long before, with all the moving we did, to take a very hard and long last look, so that I would not be homesick later for things left behind.”
+Linda was still confused with the way things stood with Morgan. After the night of their long talk, he came by and “grabbed his guitar out of my hands, mumbling something about being late for work and took off. I was still grieving over what I figured was a lost cause.”
+And then the phone rang.
+Linda started a fire in the downstairs rec room and put some music on. “I hadn’t really intended to make it such a romantic setting,” Linda remembered, “but... well, maybe...”
+Morgan had his guitar with him when he entered the room.
+“You better be careful you don’t leave that thing here again,” Linda teased.
+“Oh? And why is that?” Morgan asked.
+“Because we’re all leaving in the morning and there won’t be anybody here for you to retrieve it from.”
+They small-talked for a while, sitting next to each other on the sofa and staring a bit uncomfortably into the flames. The situation felt awkward and cold despite the warmth of the fire.
+“What’s wrong?” Morgan finally asked.
+“Look,” Linda said after a long silence, “I thought that maybe there was something going on between us. I guess I just thought, maybe, that you and I had something a bit more important than whatever you’ve got with all those other girls you spend time with. But now I don’t know. Now it all just feels....”
+Linda stopped herself. In the silence, she first felt vulnerable, and then, suddenly... safe.
+“It just seems very one sided,” she confided. “Like I’m the only one that feels this way. I guess I’m just sad because it really meant something to me. And now it’s coming to an end.”
+Morgan jumped to his feet and put out his hand. “Let’s dance.”
\ No newline at end of file
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@@ -0,0 +1,1606 @@
+AFAL-TR-88-031 AD:
+AD-A 197 537
+Final Report 21st Century Propulsion
+for the period
+7 July 1987 toCo c p
+7 January 1988 DTIC
+AUG 1 9 18
+April 1988 Author: Veritay Technology, Inc. R. L. Talley P.O. Box 305 4845 Millersport Highway East Amherst, NY 14051
+F04-88-1 F04611-87-C-0058
+Approved for Public Release
+Distribution is unlimited. The AFAL Technical Services Office has reviewed this report, and it is
+releasable to the National Technical Info-mation Service, where it will be available to the general public, including foreign nationals.
+. Preparedfor the: Air Force
+Astronautics
+Laboratory
+V
+.Air Force Space Technology Center
+"SpaceDivision, Air Force Systems Command
+Edwards Air Force Base, California 93523-5000
+• %" bb.d
+•v" t- 'r
+
+
+NOTICE
+When U.S. Government drawings, specifications, or other data are used for
+any purpose other than a definitely related Government procurement operation,
+the fact that the Government may have formulated, furnished, or in any way
+supplied the said drawings, specifications, ur other data, is not to be
+regarded by implication or otherwise, or in any way licensing the holder or
+any other person or corporation, or conveying any rights or permission to
+manufacture, use, or sell any patented invention that may be related thereto.
+FOREWORD
+This final report was submitted by Veritay Technology, Inc., East
+Amherst, NY on completion of Small Business Innovitive Research contract
+F04611-37-C-0058 with the Air Force Astronautics Laboratory (AFAL), Edwards
+AFB, CA. AFAL Project Manager was Dr Frank Mead.
+This report has been reviewed and is approved for release and
+distribution in accordance with the distribution statement on the cover and on
+the DD Forn 1473.
+FR LIN B. M'AD, JR. WILLIAM A. SU LL, CAPT, USAF
+Project Manager Chief, Advanced Concepts Branch
+FOR THE COMMANDER
+ROBERT L. GEISLER
+Deputy Chief, Astronautical Sciences
+Division
+0 . . .. . • .., . . •
+
+
+UNCLASSIFIED
+SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
+REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
+Is. REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION lb RESTRICTIVE MARKINGS UNCLASSIFIED 2a. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION AUTHORITY J. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY OF REPORr b_DECLASSIFICATION IDOWNGRADING SCHEDULE Approved for public release, distribution
+AI is unlimited.
+4 PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER(S) S. MONITORING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER(S)
+F04-88-1 AFAL-TR-68-U31
+65 NAME OF PERFORMING ORGANIZATION 61b OFFICE SYMBOL 7a. NAME OF MONITORING ORGANIZATION
+(If applicable) Air Force Astronautics
+Veritay Technology, Inc. 7V715 Laboratory
+k. ADDRESS (City, State, arid ZIP Code) 7b. ADDRESS (City. Statoe, and ZIP Code)
+4845 Millersport Highway, PO Box 305 LKCT East Amherst, New york 14051 Edwards AFB, CA 93523-5000
+.aN.AME OF FUNDING iSPONSORING 1b OFFICE SYMBOL 9. PROCUREMENT INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION NUMBER
+ORGANIZATION (If applicable) F04611-87-C-0058
+SC.ADDRFSS (City, State, and ZIP Code) 10. SOURCE OF FUNDING NUMBERS PROGRAM PROJECT TASK IWORK UNIT
+ELEMENT NO. INO. NO. ACCESSION NO.
+1_._TT ________________u_____C___.________n__. __ 65502F 3058 00 4M
+11. TITLE (include Security Classificationi
+21st Century Propulsion Concept (U)
+12. PEISONAL AUTHOR(S)
+Talley, Robert L.
+13a TYPE OF REPORT 13b. rTMECOVE9 D 14. DATE OF REPORT (Year. Month. Day) rPSAG LUNT
+iFinal I FROMI8 7 (/I/ TO 88/I/7 88/4 "
+16. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTATION
+"-'1L/ *'
+17 COSATI CODES B8.SUBJECT TERMS (Continue on reverse if necessary and identif by block number)
+FIELD GROUP SUB-GROUP Biefield-Brown Effect >Electrostatic Force Genera
+22 01 •lectrostatic Field tion.'PQOJa5 'kcq
+,,e N
+-Propu 1sion) Advanced Propulsion Technique.
+19.ABTAT(ontinue on reverse if necessary an identify by block numbewr) - ---------
+--rhis Phase Iý SBIR contract-'*f fort was intended to explore the
+Biefield-Brown effect, which allegedly converts electrostatic energy
+into a propulsive force.
+Activities under this program emphasized the experimental
+exploration of this electrostatic thrust-generation concept to verify
+its existence, to verify its operation in a vacuum, and to establish
+*- the magnitude of its thl-ust.
+To meet these goals an overall laboratory test configuration was
+designed and developed for quantifying the electrostatically induced
+'A•. propulsive forces on selected experimental devices. This
+configuration utilized a vacuum chamber with a torsion fiber type
+measurement system for direct assessment of propulsive forces.
+20 DISTRIBUTION /AVAILABILITY OF ABSTRACT 21. ABSTRACT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
+0 UNCLASSIFIEDIUNLIMITED tR SAME AS RPT 0 DTIC USERS Unclassified 22. NAME OF RESPONSIBLE INDIVIDUAL 'gb TELEPHONE (include Area Code) 22c. OFFICE SYMBOL rFcnkLtn S. Mead, Jr. (S05)275-5540
+DD FCRM 1473, 84 MAR 83 APR edition may be used until exhausted. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE
+All other editions are obsolete I
+
+
+19. ABSTRACr (CONT.)
+veometrical symmetries were incorporated in the design to minimize the influence of reaction forces which can arise from nearby bodies, including the walls of the vacuum chamber itself. Tests were conducted at atmospheric pressure and over a range of partial vacuum conditions. Direct experimental results indicate that when an electrostatic potential difference is applied between asymmetrical electrodes of an all metal test device, a residual propulsive force is generated and acts on the device. This residual force acts in the opposite direction to electrical wind forces and to the forces claimed to have been measured in a vacuum by T.T. Brown. 4* 4.1
+~~.Mo0 .
+p. '0j 00 04.
+E-.. a i 0 -A
+00 r4 m~ 41 In ~ 00
+414
+
+
+PRESSURE - PASCAL
+10"I 1 101 102 103 10 4 105
++2xl. +.020
+APPLIED POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE 39
+I0J dod.ts
+• IAS kilovoits
++lxl67 _ +.010
+40'0
+o i-'o--"-Z2-21 1 101..
+. .. .. io _
+2
+29 50 4
+PRESSURE - TORR
+Figure6 aito fMntd oc ihArPesr
+942
+Ill .1
+L4 - 211
+
+
+The positive direction of force indicated in Figure 6 is
+from the ball towards the disk for device No. 1. For the test
+results shown, the disk was always at a positive potential with resp~act to the ball, and the ball was at the same earth ground as
+the chamber walls. The stationary hollow aluminum sphere placed
+around the test device support was held at earth ground potential when leakage currents were not being measured. It was connected
+through a 10k ohm resistor to ground during current measurements. Since the observed leakage currents were less that about 1 nA, the potential of the sphere was essentially zero also.
+The region on Figure 6 labelled "measurement threshold" is bounded by the approximate positive and negative force levels
+that correspond to the combined effect of oscillation tinoisenl in
+* the torsion pendulum and readout uncertainties. Forces measured
+Xn with the current torsion fiber system are not reliable when their absolute values lie within this threshold region. 1n this region
+the forces are considered to be approximately zero.
+The average force values given iii Figure 6 include the t contribution of the electrical wind, the ion propulsion effect,
+and presumably the Brown effect. It appears that the electrical wind force is appreciable at and near atmospheric pressure, but
+falls off to zero by the time the pressure is reduced to about
+133 Pa (1 Torr). This pressure limit may be slightly lower for
+higher applied potentials. This behavior needs to be explored
+further in future investigations. The electric wind region
+indicated, however, is consistent with investigations noted in
+the literature;( 1 6 )-(1 9 ) apparently this phenomenon has received
+little attention in regions of higher vacuum.
+The net force on the device in the region where electrical wind predominates is in the directio~n toward the more positive
+potential, as indicated by Brown. In the vacuum region, however,
+our measurements show this force to be in the opposite direction.
+0 Brown ulaimed (as noted in the "Background and Review of Selected
+I
+43
+
+
+observations") that under vacuum conditions the force was "in the negative to positive direction."( 4) This discrepancy in the
+direction of force has not yet been resolved. If our results
+remain valid when further tests and other possible minor effects
+are taken into account, then it seems that the force measured
+here is not the same one Brown claimed to have investigated.
+In the pressure region bel'ow about 133 Pa (1 Torr) the total force level associated with each potential appears to be
+independent of pressure. Further, the lack of significant boundary influence in tests run inside and outside the current collecting sphere is apparent. Test numbers 47 and 50 were run with no sphere present, whereas test numbers 9 and 34 were run with devices mounted inside the sphere.
+The pressure independence also implies that any specific force level should exist unchanged even at atmospheric pressure, and should add (algebraically) to the electric wind force to give
+the total force actually measured. Near atmospheric pressure the
+electric wind force, in turn, would be larger than the total measured force shown in Figure 6.
+The variation of total force with applied potential difference is shown in Figure 7 for forces on test device No. 1
+at atmospheric pressure. The line through the data points is a
+regression line fitted to the points. On a logarithmic basis the equation of this line is
+Slog F = a + b log V, (10)
+or in terms of physical parameters,. it corresponds to the simple
+functional form
+F = A Vb, (11)
+44
+
+
+10-5
+Air Pressure:
+1.01 x 105 Pascal (760 Torr)
+"is
+10-6'17 " 10-1
+2m
+0-16
+>4
+039
+41
+10-8 1 101
+APPLIED POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE - KILOVOLTS
+Fgure 7. Viraton of 1murd Force With "MW
+45
+
+
+whore F- measured force v- applied potential difference A- constant - 10a
+b- line slope (an log-log plot).
+For the data of Figure 6, the regression line becomes approximately
+F - 5.21 x 10-8 VI'888, (12)
+where F is expressed in newtons and V in in kcilovolts.
+Forces in the pressure region at and below 1.33 Pa (I !rorr), which do not seem to vary with pressure, are combined at selected levels of applied voltage and are plotted in Figure 8. Error bars about the mean value points at 0.5 and 1.5 kcilovolts represent the positive and negative values of one standard deviation estimated from experimental data. These values
+correspond to ± 20.6 percent and ± 17.4 percent of the means, respectively. Corresponding error estimates for the single points at 0.575, 1.0 and 5.0 kilovolts are each assumed to be +21% of the respective measured force values.
+The regression line in this case becomes
+F - 3.55 x 10-8 V 0.722, (13)
+using the same units as before.
+The exponents in each of the preceding functional forms are rather sensitive to the actual data, and hence, to any minor systematic errors in the measured values. The values given,
+therefore, should be considered preliminary.
+46
+
+
+Air Pressure:
+S1.33 Pascal (1 Torr)
+10-0
+0F
+0
+7I
+10- W2
+10-'1
+APPLED
+PTENTAL
+IFFEENCE KILOOLT
+Flp L xdo@Lo~m md am M "ie
+47
+
+
+I•-
+Results for tests conducted inside the hollow sphere using
+the symmetrical device No.2 are given in Table S. The purposzeof
+these tests was to determine if the figure-eight device support
+produced an asymmetrical force, and whether such a force, if present, was due to electrical wind. In view of Brown's work, the symmetrical device, itself, should produce no net force due to either the electrical wind or to the Brown effect. These tests were conducted using different combinations of electrical potentials on the two toroids and different grounding arrangements. The electrical conditions for each test run are shown In Table 9.
+For all cases the electrical connections between the terminals at the bottom of the figure-eight support (or equally at the top of the stand pipe) and the device elements remains
+fixed. The center terminal indicated in Figure 9, is always
+connected to the ball end of the asymmetrical device, or to the
+toroids of the symmetrical device which fastens onto the same support arm. Likewise, the outside terminal fastens to the disk of the asymmetrical device, or the other toroid in the symmetrical case.
+r reference, all the tests noted previously for asymmetrical devices were run using electrical condi 4 -n #1, given in Table 9.
+There is a slight asymmetry in the figure-eight device support shown earlier in Figure 4, consisting of the mechanical
+support ring for the brass tubes that hold the disks of the
+asymmetrical device. This same ring also serves as an electrical U- connection between the two disks and the vertical brass tube
+which ultimately connects to the outside terminal at the top of
+the stand pipe, as shown in Figure 5.
+* 48
+S
+
+
+o 00 04
+p4~ ..9,...
+9..4
+"4 "4,
+0 0i @0
+0 c:
+Go 0o *1
+10a 0'
+0 0In %a 0 wtG a C * Um en4 in 0 M 4 . + + + I+ + I+ + I+
+*4 0 m A M *4 *
+mn a0 '0 ' 0
+%49.4 .. 9- 9 1 1 9 . 9. 9 97
+a W4 4 94 4- '4 A4 4 94 C4 .4. . 4
+r40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
+P40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0
+?0 4m0 m40 m0 4 a0 0 a0 0- 0 .
+mO Il r4 Mn In In Mn In In H A
+0 0 0 0000 0 0000 0
+EA A4 .4 A4 .4 H4 H4 m 4 .4 H4 00 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 04 0. 0 04
+c. r44 A4 m4 H4 .H4 4 r4 4 .4 .4 4n
+0N N m N N m N NNN N
+M M 60 V .4 M H i5n.4
+M q 0 M4 w M4 m 4 N In .4
+A
+0 mn in V q 4 v4 In In In w0
+.4 H4 .4 .4 .4 .4 4 . .4 4 .4 4
+04 .4 .
+4 r 4 .4
+49
+
+
+Table 9. Electrical Conditions for Symmetrical Device Tests Signs of Electrical Potentials on Terminals at Top ofStape
+CONDITION CENTER OUTSIDE GROUD
+TERMINAL TERMINAL TIRKINAL
+#1 + ~Center(
+#2 + -Center (.
+#3 + -Outside(
+# 4 + Outside (.
+TEST NO. ELECTRICAL TEST NO.* ELECTRICAL (TABLE 8) CONDITION (TABLE 8) CONDITION
+1iT 8ST 4
+2T 3 9T 2
+3 T 3 10OT 2
+4 T 1 11 T 4 ~
+5 T 2 12 T 1
+6 T 4 13 T
+7 T 4 14 T 3
+It is perhaps easiest to grasp the symmetry test results by
+examining Table 10, where the measured total force values are indicated, together with test run number, in an array
+corresponding to given electrical conditions and potential differences applied to the device.
+First, it is noted that the measurement threshold corresponds to a force of about .385 x 10-8 newton. Hence, the
+force values under condition #2 at atmospheric pressure are
+essentially zero. The values for conditions #1 and #4 combine to
+50
+
+
+Table 10. Array for Comparison of Forces Measured
+Using Symmetrical Device
+Entry: Measured force, newtons(symmetrical device test number)
+ELECTRICAL CONDITION APPLIED POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
+1500 VOLTS 1000 VOLTS 500 VOLTS
+"Pressure:
+j1.01xl05pa (760 torr)
+# 1 - .866xI0-S(lT)
+# 2 - .385xi0-8(5T) + .385x10- 8 (9T)
+# 3 +3.657xl10 8 (2T)
+0 +3. 368x108 (3T)
+# 4 +5.197x10-8(6T) +4.138x10-8(7T) 1.059x10-8 (8T)7
+Pressure:
+1.l9x103Pa(9 torr)
+# 1 +.289xi0-8(12T)
+# 2 +.577xi0-8(10T)
+# 3 ---- +.289xi0-8(14T)
+# 4 ---- -. 481x10 8 (liT)
+indicate a bias in the force of approximately +2.1 x 10-8 newton.
+This corresponds to the polarity used in the asymmetric tests.
+The bias causes the force measured under the #1 condition to be more positive (less negative) than would be the case without the bias. This bias is attributed to the figure-eight device support
+hardware (probably associated with the asymmetrical support ring mentioned above), since the toroids of the No.3 devices used are quite symmetric and their force contribution should be zero.
+51
+
+
+A similar bias, with the same sign but with smaller
+magnitude (about +1.6x10- 8 newton) also exists for the electrical
+conditions #2 and #3. In this case the electrical polarity at
+the device terminals are reversed.
+The most important feature, however, is that at the pressure of 1.19x10 3 Pa(9 torr), each of the forces measured at atmospheric pressure has essentially disappeared. The force
+values for conditions #2 and #4 which are slightly in excess of
+the measurement threshold, are still considered to be a noise
+deflection. This disappearanLe of measured forces implies that the forces observed with the symmetrical devices at atmospheric pressure are caused by electrical wind. In turn, this source of
+wind interaction is most likely the figure-eight support, and particularly the metal ring. This slight asymmetry does not seem
+to be operative at reduced pressures, so the previous test results with the asymmetrical test devices should be unaffected.
+Auxiliary Tests and Considerations
+A few auxiliary tests were conducted in attempt to further
+define or estimate the importance of factors which could influence the results obtained during tests of asymmetrical
+device No.l.
+Perhaps the most important of the auxiliary tests were the
+ones run to assess the effect of lighting within the chamber on
+the torsion fiber, the test devices, and the residual air in the chamber.
+Heating of the torsion fiber by incident radiation (especially under vacuum conditions) was examined briefly via
+comparison runs for a normal device load with the fiber shielded,
+with the radiation turned off, and with radiation turned on as used during device test runs. These several conditions appeared
+to have no effect on fiber performance or drift when they were
+52
+Li
+
+
+individually applied, or juxtaposed,' over a period of about 30 minutes.
+Direct application of radiation to the test devices ina the open chamber indicated no measurable effects of radiation pressure. Inasmuch as the devices were inside the sphere during many of the test runs, radiation pressure effects were not expected to be influential during those particular test runs.4
+Radiant heating of air (or gas) in the chamber does cause mild convection currents to appear when the air pressure is near
+atmospheric. At reduced pressured of about 1.33x10 3 Pa(l0 torr)I
+or less no convection currents strong enough to influence force readings were observed.
+Magnetic effects were considered, but were essentially
+negated by the symmetrical design of the figure-eight deviceI
+support and the current carrying electrical connections and
+The figure-eight support design was chosen and irplemented for two reasons; first, to eliminate the need to place a specific dielectric material between the electrodes of the test devices; and second, to balance any residual electric vind forces between support arms so that no net torque would act on the fiber.
+Other auxiliary considerations, such as boundary effects, t~m electrical breakdown conditions, use of symmetrical devices, changing electrical polarities, and use of different grounding points have been noted previously and are relevant.
+System Errors
+Any measurement system is subject to errors, both random and systematic, and the torsion fiber system used in this effort was * no exception.
+53
+
+
+The principal random errors encountered were a slow zero
+drift of the fiber and a fast shift of the apparent zero position
+of the fiber, usually when an electrical potential was applied to
+the devices under test. The slow zero drift was straight forward
+to assess, since the zero positions were evaluated both before
+and after each test run. The fast shift proved more difficult,
+and was apparently not directly associated with the fiber behavior, but with that of the mercury when an electrical potential was applied. This can likely be circumvented by eliminating the mercury contacts from the system.
+The main sytematic error encountered was the mechanical drag of the mercury on the alectrical contacts mounted to the oscillating device pendulum. This drag tended to reduce the deflection of an electrically driven device, thereby indicating . that a smaller total force was causing the device to deflect.
+This is another key'reason for eliminating the use of mercury for electrical contacts.
+A second systematic error is unconfirmed, but is apt to be associated with a changing value of the torsional stiffness, S, of the copper fiber used, with temperature and with applied load
+on the fiber. Copper is probably not strong enough or sufficiently stable to serve as a trouble free fiber for this
+application; tungsten is believed to be a better choice.
+Evaluation
+The total force measurements need to ba compared to
+estimates of the magnitudes of the electric wind and ion
+propulsion effect to determine if any residual force exists.
+In this program, asymmetrical devices were used for testing
+purposes to emphasize the Brown effect rather than electric wind. Given this selection, the burden of accounting for the magnitude
+54
+
+
+of the electric wind during this effort was placed on
+measurements of the total forces generated electrostatically
+rather than on calculated results. The geometry of the
+asymmetric ball and disk are such that direct calculation of the
+electric wind ef'ect for this type of device becomes a
+significant three-dimensional axisymmetric boundary value
+problem. The major difficulty arises because the electric field
+and induced air flow (electric wind) are coupled and are
+generally not in the same direction at any point in the
+longitudinal plane, which includes the symmetry axis of the
+device. While such calculations can be made, they were not
+considered to be within the scope of the Phase I effort.
+Tt is of interest to note, however, that an analytical model
+has been advanced by Chang( 2 0 ) for a simple one-dimensional case of electric wind generation by a device consisting of closely spaced parallel planar electrodes constructed of light wire
+meshes. When these electrodes are driven with a DC potential difference of several kilovolts, a thrust is generated that consists of electric pressure and electric wind. The electric
+pressure arises from a nonuniform elec'%. i field energy density between the electrodes (the nonuniformity results from space charge effects); the electric wind arises from the induced flow of neutral air molecules. For the sake of simplicity, thp energy
+density term has not been separately called out in this report;
+instead, it has been included as part of the electric wind effect
+itself. Both electric pressure and electric wind cause a force on the device described by Cheng, which acts in a direction towards
+the positive electrode, just as observed here and as observed by
+Brown.
+It is considered desirable in any follow-on effort to
+incorporate a device configuration that will allow direct
+comparison of test results with Cheng's model. This should help corroborate experimental findings with theory and strengthen the
+interpretation of any residual force effects observed.
+55
+I_- - - - - - * . . * . -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -
+0- - - - - -
+
+
+The magnitude of the ion propulsion effect :iepends on the size of the diffusion current not collected by the disk or ball of the asymmetrical device No.1, but which passes to and is collected by the conducting sphere surrounding the test devices. The limit of sensitivity of the metering system used to evaluate the leakage current to the sphere was 1 nA. At no time (except during electrical breakdown) during the test runs under a vacuum was a measurable value observed in excess of this current sensitivity limit. Thus lx10- 9 ampere represents an upper bound on the current expected to contribute to the ion propulsion effect.
+A general expression for the force, F, expected from such an electrostatic thruster is given by Sutton and Ross (21):
+F - 1 (14)
+where F= accelerating force, newton
+I= propelling current flow, coulomb/sec V= accelerating potential difference, volts A= mass of accelerated particle, kg
+e= charge per particle, coulomb.
+For a threshold current of 1= 10-9 amp, V= 1000 volts and e= 1.60x10- 1 9 coulomb, equation (14) gives
+F= 111.84 newtons.
+If the accelerated particles were all electrons, protons, or aluminum ions (single charge) the corresponding maximum forces would be:
+56
+II
+
+
+electrons: ,u 9.11 x 10"31 kg
+F- 1.07 x 10-13 newton - 1.07 x 10-8 dyne
+protons: u= 1.672 x 10-27 kg
+F- 4.57 x 10-12 newton - 4.57 x 10-7 dyne
+aluminum a- 26.T8xl.66x10- 2 7 kg/AMU = 44.8X10-27 kg
+ions: F- 2.37 x 10-11 newton = 2.37 x 10-6 dyne.
+The force per device would be one-half of each of these values.
+These estimates assume that all the ion current would act
+collectively to propel each device in one direction. These force
+values per device are at most less than 1/1000 of the force measurement threshold value of .385xi0-8 newton (0.000385 dyne).
+Here these estimates for ion propulsion effects are negligible, and the extrapolation procedure suggested earlier is unneccessary. The measured total force values for pressures less than about 133 Pa (1 torr), as shown in Figure 6, are the forces sought.
+These electrostatically generated interaction forces are in the opposite direction of the forces claimed to have been measured by T.T. Brown. Hence, these interaction forces will not
+be referred to as due to the Brown effect, but will be called
+residual forces.
+57
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS
+The following conclusions have been reached based on the investigations of the Biefield-Brown effect conducted on this
+project:
+1. Direct experimental results show that when an electrostatic potential difference is applied between
+asymmetrical electrodes of an all metal teat device, a
+propulsive force is generated and it acts on this
+device.
+2. This electrostatically induced propulsive force consists of at least three components: electrical wind, ion propulsion, and a significant residual force.
+a.The electrical wind acts in the direction from the
+negative to the positive electrode and occurs only for air pressures greater than about 133 Pascal (1 torr),
+at least for applied potentials in the low kilovolt
+range.
+b.The ion propulsion effect (estimated on a theoretical
+basis) is completely negligible for the tests
+c.The residual force acts (for the tests conducted and
+the test device used) in the direction from the
+positive to the negative electrode, i.e., opposite to the direction of the electrical wind force. This
+W 0 residual force was observed directly and remained
+independent of the partial vacuum level over the
+approximate range of 133 Pascal (1 torr) to 1.33 Pascal
+(10-2 torr). Observations further indicate that this residual force remained constant up to atmospheric
+58
+
+
+pressure and subtracted from the electrical wind to yield the total force actually measured.
+3. The electrostatically generated residual forces
+measured here act in the opposite direction to the
+forces claimed to have been measured in a vacuum by
+T.T. Brown. As a result these forces are referred to
+as residual forces, and not as forces caused by the
+Brown effect.
+4. The residual force appears to vary approximately as the
+0.72 power of the potential difference applied to the asymmetrical propulsion device tested. This finding is
+based on only a few datapoints, and may need revision when more data become available.
+5. The measured total force at atmospheric pressure, due to contributions from electrical wind and (presumably)
+the residual force, varies approximately as the 1.9 power of the potential difference applied to the asymmetrical propulsion device tested.
+6. The magnitude of the residual force appears to be
+rather small, but the size, shape and configuration of
+the. device tested are not necessarily optimal for
+residual force generation, and it may be possible to
+generate larger forces with devices similar in overall
+size.
+1~7. only cursory attention was given to the exploration of
+electrostatically induced propulsive forces using devices which incorporate dielectrics in their design.
+The few tests which were conducted at atmospheric
+pressure using such devices, exhibited problems with
+reproducibility.
+59
+
+
+8. The torsion fiber type measurement system employed in
+this program needs a few modifications to improve
+performanco, but the overall measurement scheme appears
+suitable for investigating the fundamental aspects of
+electrostatically induced propulsive forces.
+60
+Ik L2
+
+
+RECOMMENDATIONS
+As a result of this investigation, it is recommended thatmeasurements of propulsive forces generated on test devices by--application of applied electrostatic potentials or fields be
+continued. The purpose of this activity would be to further verify the existence of the residual force noted in this report,,, and to develop a more extensive data base which can be used to-more thoroughly explore and characterize its nature. Particular . attention needs to be given to extending the range of test conditions to greater vacuum levels and to higher applied electrostatic potentials. Selected improvements in the overall measurement and test configuration need to be incorporated to facilitate test reproduciblity, more efficient data collection,
+* and improved accuracy of measurements.
+A
+<
+N
+ri.•
+0.
+
+
+REFERENCES
+1. G. Burridge, Townsend Brown and His Anti-Gravity DiscsFats __ pp 40-46, 1956.
+2. Rho Sigma, Ether Technology: A Rational Approach to
+Gravity-Control, Private Publication, Clayton; -GA-1977,-pp. 27-28, 39, 44-49.
+3. T.T. Binwn, "A Method of and an Apparatus or Machine For
+Producing Force or Motion," British Patent #300, 311, Nov. 15, 1928. p. 4, line 46.
+4. T.T. Brown, Electrokinetic Apparatus, U.S. Patent 3,187,206_
+June 1, 1965.
+5. T.T. Brown, How I Control Gravitation, Science and Invention. August 1929, p. 374.
+6. Office of Naval Research, The Townsend Brown ElectroGravity Device: A Comprehensive Evaluation by the Office of
+Naval Research, with Accompanying Documents, W.M. Moore
+Publications, Prescott, Az. Sept. 15, 1952.
+7. L.B. Loeb, Electrical Coronas, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1965, pp. 402-406.
+8. D.E. Gray (ed.) American Institute of Physics Hardbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1957, pp. 2-61, 3-78- 3-80.
+9. A. Elliott and J.M. Dickson, Laboratory Instruments: Their Design and Application, Chemical Publishing Co., New York, 1960.
+10. P.J. Geary, Torsion Devices, British Scientific Instrument Research Association Report R249, 1960.
+11. C. Limb, Sur la determination du moment du couple de torsion d'une susrension unifilaire, Compte Rendus Vol. 114, pp.
+1057-1060, May 9, 1892.
+12. R.C. Weast (ed.), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,
+55th Edition, CRC Press, Cleveland, 1975.
+13. H.A. Pohl, Dielectrophoresis, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1978.
+14. A.D. Moore, Electrostatics and Its Applications, John Wiley
+& Sons, Inc., New York 1973.
+15. W.J. McGregor Tegart, Elements of Mechanical Metallurgy, MacMillan Co., New York, 1966, p. 97.
+62
+
+
+F...... . . . . . .- .. ....
+REFERENCES (CONT)
+16. A.P. Chattock, Philosophical Magazine, Vol.48, p 401, 1899.
+17. A.P. Chattock, Philosophical Magazine, Vol.1, p 79, 1901.
+18. A.P. Chattock and A.M. Tyndall, Philosophical Magazine, Vol .17, p 543, 1909.
+19. S. Rattner, Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 32, p 442, 1916.
+20. S.I. Cheng, Glow Discharge as an Advanced Propulsion Device, ARS Journal Vol. 32, No. 12, pp 1910-1916, December 1962.
+21. G.P. Sutton and D.M. Ross, Rocket Propulsion Elements, 4th
+ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1976, p 481.
+63
+
+
+BIBMLIOGRAPHY
+AIMA Subcommittee 1971 "UFO Encounter I -- Samle case selected
+by the UFO Subcommittee of the A~A,
+Astrnaic A&rni en p6-*
+Bearden, T.E. and A. Michrovski,
+1985 The Emerging Energy science, Planetary
+Association for Clean Energy Inc.,
+Ottawa, CA
+Brown, T.T., 1928 "A Method of and an Apatsor-Machine .
+for Producing Force or Nlotion,"0 ritish
+Patent #300,311. Nov. 15, 1928.
+Brown, T.T., 1929 "How I Control Gravitation," scinceand~
+Invention. August. pp.312-313, 373-375.
+Brown, T.T., 1934 "Electrostatic Motor," U.S. Patent * #1,974,483. September 25, 1934.
+Brown, T.T., 1956 "Electrical Self-Potential in Rocks," Psychic observer and Chimes. 37(l) Jan.-
+Brown, T.T., 1956 "Electrokinetic Apparatus," The Psycic
+Observer and Chimes. 37(l)i Jan. -Mar. pp.
+34-40.
+Brown, T.T., 1956 "The Fluid Pump," The Psychic Obgney.er
+and Chimags. 37(1) Jan.-Mar. pp.54-59.
+Brown, T.T., 1956 "How I Control Gravitation," The sychic obsrvyer and Chimes. 37(.l2) Jan.-Mar.
+pp.14-19.
+Brown, T.T., 1960 "Electrokcinetic Apparatus," U.S. Patent #2,949,550. August 16, 1960.
+Brown, T.T., 1962 "Electrokinetic Generator," U.S. Patent #3,022,430. February 20, 1962.
+Brown, T.T., 1962 "Electrokinetic Transducer," U.S. Patent
+#3,018,394, January 23, 1962.
+Brown, T.T., 1965 "Electric Generator," U.S. Patent
+#3,196,296. July 20, 1965.
+Brown, T.T., 1965 "Electrokinetic Apparatus, U.S. "Patent #3,187,206. June 1, 1965.
+* 64
+
+
+... .--i.
+BT.T, 1973 L"Research in Shackles," Information and
+Brown,Ltter from Brown
+Brown, T.T., 1986 'The Scientific Notebooks of T.T. Brown" William L. Moore Publications & Research.
+Vol.l., Vol. 2.
+Burridge, Gaston, 1956 "Townsend Brown and His Anti-Gravity
+Discs," TE, pp.40-46.
+Chattock, A.P. 1899 Philosophical Magazine. Vol 48, p. 401.
+Chattock, A.P. 1901 Philoso2hical Magazine. Vol 1, p. 79.
+Chattock, A.P. and A.M. Tyndall
+1909 Philosophical Magazine. Vol 17, p. 543.
+Childress,D.H. 1985 The Anti-Gravity Handbook, Publishers
+Network/Adventurer Unlimited Press, Stelle, IL, 1985.
+Christenson, Edward and Paul Moller
+1967 "Ion-Neutral Propulsion in Atmospheric Media," AIAA Journal. Vol.5(10)., pp.
+1768-1773.
+Cleaver, A.V., 1957 "Electro-Gravitics: What it is--or Might j
+Be," Journal of the British j
+Interplanetary Society. VoI.16, pp.84-94.
+Coll. Univ. Wisdom 1966 "The Biefield-Brown Effect,"
+"Proceedings" College of Universal
+Wisdom. Yucca Valley, Calif., Volume 8, Aug.-Oct. pp. 1-4, 4-6, 36-41, 87.
+DeSeverskyA.P. 1964 "Ionocraft," U.S. Patent #3,130,945, April 28, 1964.
+Gravity Rand, Ltd. 1956 "The Gravitics Situation." pp.3-30.
+Hagan, D.E. 1964 "Flying Apparatus," U.S. Patent #3,120,363. February 4, 1964.
+Intel, 1956 "Towards Flight without Stress or
+Strain...or Weight," ILnterAyi. Vol.11(5), pp.373-375.
+65
+
+
+Intel, 1956 "Towards Flight without Stress or
+Strain...or Veiqhtew The Psyahei Observer
+and Chimes. 37(11 Jan.-Nar. pp.10-13.
+Mead, F.B.,Jr., and J. E. Cox
+1976 "Laboratory of T. Townsend, Sunnyvale,
+CA," Trip Report, January 24 & 25.
+Moore, W.L. 1979 "The Force Fields of Townsetnid-rm." The
+Philadelphia Experiment. Fawcett Crest
+Books: New York. pp.207-225.
+Naval Research Off. 1952 "The Townsend Brown Electra-Gravity
+Device," A Comprehensive Evaluation by the Office of Naval Research, with
+Accompanying Documents. W.M. Moore Publications, Prescott, AZ, September.
+15.
+Rattner, S. 1916 PhilosoDhical Magazine. Vol 32, p. 442.
+Rose, Mason, 1956 "The Flying Saucer," The Psychic Observer
+andCimes 371l) Jan.-Mar. pp.20-27.
+Schaffranke, R 1975 "Letter to the Editor--Energy Research:
+is America Losing the Ball?" Astronautics
+& Aeronautics. Vol.37(l). pp.46-47, 69.
+Sigma Rho 1972 Forschung in Fesseln, Ventla-Verlag,
+Originalausgabe 1972, VENTLA-Verlag, D
+6200 Wiesbaden-Schierstein
+Sigma, Rho, 1972 "Research in Bondage, The Riddle of the
+Electro-Gravitation." pp. 11-22 (translation)
+Sigma, Rho, 1977 Ether-Technology: A Rational Approach to
+Gravity-Control
+Thomas, W.R. and J. L. Martin
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+Electrokinetic Apparatus," Psychic
+Observer and Chimes, 37(1). Jan-Mar.,
+pp. 42-45
+66
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/storage/KMJQ3SF5/Talley - 21ST Century Propulsion Concept.pdf b/storage/KMJQ3SF5/Talley - 21ST Century Propulsion Concept.pdf
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+%PDF-1.4
+%
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+<<
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+/Pages 2 0 R
+/Outlines 3 0 R
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+/Creator ( )
+/Producer ( )
+/Author (Talley, Robert L.)
+/Keywords (*ELECTRIC PROPULSION;*SPACE PROPULSION;LABORATORY TESTS;ENERGY;WIND;VACUUM;TEST EQUIPMENT;ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES;VACUUM CHAMBERS;PROPULSION SYSTEMS;ASYMMETRY;RESIDUALS;ELECTRODES;CONFIGURATIONS;SYMMETRY;LAUNCHING;WALLS;BAROMETRIC PRESSURE;ELECTROSTATICS;ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS)
+/Subject (This Phase I effort was intended to explore the Biefield-Brown effect, which allegedly converts electrostatic energy into a propulsive force. Activities under this program emphasized the experimental exploration of this electrostatic thrust-generation concept to verify its existence, to verify its operation in a vacuum, and to establish the magnitude of its thrust. To meet these goals an overall laboratory test configuration was designed and developed for quantifying the electrostatically induced propulsive forces on selected experimental devices. This configuration utilized a vacuum chamber with a torsion fiber type measurement system for direct assessment of propulsive forces. Geometrical symmetries were incorporated in the design to minimize the influence of reaction forces which can arise from nearby bodies, including the walls of the vacuum chamber itself. Tests were conducted at atmospheric pressure and over a range of partial vacuum conditions. Direct experimental results indicate that when an electrostatic potential difference is applied between asymmetrical electrodes of an all metal test device, a residual propulsive force is generated and acts on the device. This residual force acts in the opposite direction to electrical wind forces and to the forces claimed to have been measured in a vacuum by T.T. Brown. Keywords Electrostatic field propulsion Electrostatic force generation Payloads Launching Maneuvers Space propulsion. aw)
+/Title (21ST Century Propulsion Concept)
+/Filename (/pdf/TR/ADA197537.pdf)
+>>
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