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UKRAINE

ISSN 1726-4499

Spacetime & Substance
International Physical Journal

Volume 3, No. 5 (15), 2002

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of
Transcription, Translation and Replication JSC

UKRAINE

Spacetime & Substance International Physical Journal

ISSN 1726-4499

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c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 193{206 Spacetime Substance,

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION FORMATION THROUGH THE THERMAL RADIATION OF METAGALAXY STARS
V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin1
Radiophysical Research Institute, N.Novgorod, Russia
Received Desember 2, 2002

The paper is devoted to the development of the theory of microwave background formation through the optical radiation of Metagalaxy stars which is transformed due to the redshift into the microwave and infrared star background radiation. An application of the theory to the model of a stationary nonexpanding Universe of a size not less than 40{50 thousand Mpc shows that the star microwave background is not strictly the blackbody one. Its brightness temperature and spectral density correspond to 2:73K in Rayleigh-Jeans region of the background  > 1mm, but grow signicantly in submillimeter,infrared and optical wave ranges. This prediction is conrmed by available measurements up to optical wavelengths. Besides, the value and dependence of small-space background 
uctuations on the angular resolution and the wavelength predicted by the theory is in a good agreement with the experimental data. Finally, the fact, mysterious from the background relic origin point of view, of equality of the volume background energy density and the optical star radiation energy has a very simple and natural explanation. An application of the theory to the closed model of the Universe in the big-bang cosmology shows that at wavelengths  > 1mm the star background is negligibly small (no more then 0.1K), but at submillimeter waves it signicantly exceeds 2.7K that comes into con
ict with the hypothesis of the background relic origin and the idea of the big bang. It follows from the results obtained that the observable nonblackbody electromagnetic background is not a relic one and it has a star origin.

For majority opinion to change on the correctness of the hot big-bang cosmology, it is clear that one or more of the arguments given above must be seen to fail ... . However, if a change does occur, it will probably come from one of three directions: ... b) A demonstration that there is an other plausible mechanism which could be responsible for the MBR, probably related to the idea that it does not have a perfect blackbody spectrum and/or that it could not have been coupled to the matter at an earlier epoch (Burbidge, 1989, p. 988)

Introduction
The idea to explain the microwave background radiation by sources of dierent nature is not new, but it has not yet been worked out in any concrete form.
In this paper we investigate a possibility to explain the observed microwave background by the thermal radiation of the Metagalaxy stars. For this purpose it is evident to use some cosmological models of the structure and evolution of the Universe. The problem of the contribution of the star integral radiation in standard cosmology models was studied earlier. First studies in this direction were carried out by McVittie(1962). On the methodical basis of this work Doroshkevich and Novikov(1964) have published only results of colculations for dierent models of the standard cosmology.
1e-mail: redshift0@narod.ru

The methods of calculations were not given. It has

been shown, in particular, that at a wavelength of ob-

ssetarvraitnitoengraol

> 1mm the volume energy radiation is much less than

density of the the blackbody

radiation with the temperature T = 1K . There was

an armation (Parijskij and Sunyaev 1973) that \the

observed relic radiation cannot be explained by the in-

tegral radiation of discrete sources" in standard cosmol-

ogy models. To calculate the radiation of galaxies, as

correctly noted by Zel'dovich and Novikov (1967), \is

of prime importance in a hot model since it is the back-

ground on which the relic radiation of the model itself

is to be observed."

This is a valuable but unused so far test of the

background relic origin theory. Recently there have

been some serious experimental demonstrations that

the standard cosmology does not re
ect any more a

real state of matter and radiation in the Universe (lu-

194

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

minosity of galaxies, their dimensions and evolution) (Segal 1992; Troitskij 1992,1994). In this connection and due to existing alternative cosmological theories it becomes important to explain the microwave by other physical reasons, in particular, by the optical radiation of stars in distant galaxies transformed into the radiofrequency band owing to the redshift of the radiation of stars along the path to an observer.
In this formulation the problem requires justied physical procedures of calculation for its solution which are absent in full measure so far. The method of calculation and the rst estimations presented earlier (Troitskij 1994) had shown that in a static nonexpanding Universe the 3K background can be explained by the thermal radiation of stars if the size of the stationary Universe is at least by an order more than that of the generally adopted. In this present paper we give a detailed physical justication of the calculation method which is then applied to BGR calculation for dierent models of the Universe including the standard one. A comparison is made for the results obtained for dierent models with the observed characteristics of the microwave bthaactkgtrhoeuonredt.icaTlhmisomdealymaosgtoaoddeqteusattetowcithhootshee trheiasliotyr (see reviews of Baryshev 1992, Burbidge 1989). All said above justies the statement of the present work.

1. Pbahcyksgicraolunbdasifsoromf asttaiornmicrowave

To determine this radiation let us consider the Uni-

verse as the Euclidean space lled with matter in the

form of galaxies being the clusters of stars of dierent

spectral classes. We suppose that the spatial distri-

bution of galaxies in the Metagalaxy space is uniform

and isotropic and their mean parameters over a su-

ciently large volume do not depend practically on the

distance. We suggest as well the star thermal radia-

tion as a blackbody one. At rst let us consider the

solution of the problem in a simplied form taking the

temperature of all stars equal in the whole galaxy. Let

n gal=Mpc be the mean volume density of galaxies, m,

the mean number of stars in the galaxies, r, their mean

radius, T ,the mean temperature of their photospheres.

Let us take into account that the stars in galaxies are

not practically projected to which other.

Let us nd the spectral power density of the ther-

mthaelarnatdeinantiaonap
eurtxurfreowmitshtarresceapttiroandidoiafgrerqaumen
cyster0adin.

The full 
ux from the galaxies volume element R2
 dR is

at

metric

distance

R

in

d = F (; T ) r2n m R2
 dR d:

(1)

Here  is the radiation frequency of stars in their own reference frame, F(; T) is the Plank's function

for the spectral density of the star blackbody emissivi-

ty W=cm2Hz sr. Along the path of propagation up to

a telescope antenna this radiation at frequency  will

have three types of attenuation and a frequency trans-

formation due to the redshift. The rst type is the

attenuation in R2 times, the second type is the energy

absorption in the propagation medium which we shall

describe by the function 
(R). And at last the third

type of attenuation is connected with the redshift of fre-

quency  up To determine

to observation frequency this type of attenuation

th0er=e

=(z + 1). is no need

to use any hypothesis on the redshift nature except the

fact of its existence. Let us consider the star radiation

with a spectral density F(T) at frequency  in a nar-

row frequency band d . At the observation point all

tfstrhpimeieqsceutsserpandelcucitederseutnomsit(thwzyei0+lF:ls5p1b(e)ec0tsrTeaue)nnmdssichnoicfn(+etzterd0i+at:sc5d1toii)nowncnrweiwsaistictehohmuinbnpoce(hunzansnd+agateer1ddy)

in the same times by weakening of the quantum ener-

gy from h spectrum is

etqouhal0t.o

Thus, the energy the integral of F

of the shifted ( T) in band

=(z + 1) i.e.

F( T) =(z + 1) = F( T) 0;

where well at

a

p0ur=ely

=(z + 1). This result is obtained as quantum approach. Indeed, radiation

F( T) d for very narrow band d is a practically a monochromatic one and its power is proportional to

h . At the reception point this monochromatic radia-

tion (z +

will have 1) times

aesnceorgmypparreodpowrtitiohntahletoradhia0t,edi.eo.nel.esTs hine

same extinction will be as well in the case of a wide

reception band, overlapping all the spectrum of the ob-

served radiation. To illustrate this point let us nd the

total energy received As above, we suggest

ftrhoemsotuhrecesoruardcieatwioitnhinreidtsshfirftamze.

of reference have Planck spectrum. In this case each

frequency at the observer of the whole spectrum ex-

tending from  = 0 to  ! 1 will have a shift to zero frequency decreasing in (z + 1) times. This spectrum take the form

d

0F

(0)

=

2h
c2

03(z

+

1)3


exp

h0(z +
kT

1)


1

1 d0;

W=cm2sr;

werh'serreefer0en=ce=fr(azm+e.1)

is the frequency Integrating over

in all

the observfrequencies

hB0o0lt(frzzom+ma1n)0n=kltoTow=1x

and using the change of variables we have an analogue of the Stefan-

P

=

2k4 h3c2(z

T4
+ 1)

Z1 0

x3 ex

1

dx

=

T

4=(z

+

1):

Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars195

Thus, as it is expected all the energy received decreases in (z + 1) times.
It should be noted that in the standard cosmology the attenuation of galaxy radiation caused by the redshift due to the Doppler eect is taken to be equal in (z + 1)2 times, i.e. for the Planck radiation spectrum F( T) d the received signal has power
F( T) d=(z + 1)2 = F( T) d0=(z + 1): This attenuation, as suggested, is due both to the decrease of the quantum energy and their number (or in another words the frequency band). It seems that in this way the attenuation is determined twice: rst in (z+1) times due to the decrease of the quantum energy (quantum approach), and then again in (z+1) times due to the decrease of the band (classical approach), we consider such an approach to be groundless.
So then, at the reception place we have the following illumination from the considered volume element
dE = r2 n m 
(R)

we obtain the required expression for the background radiation temperature

 r2 nm 2hc203

Zzm 0

exp(z[h+01()z3+
(R1))=ddkRzTd] z

1

=

= c2[exp(h2h0=03kTb) 1]: (5)

The dimension of (5)is equal to W=cm2Hz sr. In

dimensionless in meters, we

form have

designating

0

=

c=0

,

where

0

is

 r2 nm

Zzm 0

exp(zh+c(z1)+3
1()R=k) dTdRz0dz

1

=

=


exp



hc k0Tb



1
1:

(6)

Denoting the left part as x we have for the background temperature

F [0 (z + 1); T ]
 d0 dR; W=cm2sr; (2)

where 1)=kT

F
)

[10](Wz +=cm1)2;sTr]H=z

.2hTh03e(zfu+ll1i)ll3u=mc2i[neaxtpio(hni0n(zth+e

antenna aperture from all the galaxies in the solid angle

of the radiotelescope antenna is

Z1
E =  r2 nm d0
 F [0(z + 1); T ] 
(R) dR: (3)

Tb(0)

=

k0

hc
ln[(x +

1)=x]

:

(7)

Expression (6) is simplied if, rstly, in the upp1gta)re=okruinin0ngkdtTtethgeermat0pri:oes1trnattelu0irm:rm2eitaoTnfwbdteh,hesche=eacxvo0penkodtTnlhbyee,ntacitoa0ntl:1hdfueitndi0coe:tns2iio.rnheAdce(sxbzpimatacink+s--, sion we obtain from (6)

0

0

,

If 
(R) is such then the upper

that at some limit of the

Rint=egRraml awxi;ll

b
e(Rdemanxi)te=

Tb

=

r2

nm

T

Zzm
(z
0

+

1)2
(z)

dR dz

dz:

(8)

and equal to distance R

iRtsmraaxd.iaAtisoint

is obvious, at at frequency

the


given galaxy will come in

the reception if the galaxy

band at redshift

the is z

frequency . In this

wa0y=to=in(zte+gra1t)e,

expression (3) it is necessary to use the functional rela-

tion between R and  or, ultimately, between R and

z.

for

Then, substituting dR 
(z) we obtain nally

in

(3)

for

dR

=

dR dz

dz

,


(R)

AfisutlfuNzllmloeldwl=efdfoo3rfr0o0irn00tea0gnr3datc2iTmn:5g=acimnt6di.st1nh0ee3cKesesscaothrnyed

rst condition is one at Tb  3K to know R(z) in

the interval 0  z  1. For this purpose one can use

ieRqnsut=aatshbaRelris0shpirenszdtthvaeeepxrppiinreoterexidmrivmbeaynal ttt0aiholelnyoztbfhoserer5Hvzau(tSbieobgnlea0sl:lo01af2w9g9ao3Rlr,aTxt=riheoesiRtasl0ankwidzj

E = r2 nm d0


1994). Then, for calculation it is necessary to determine the attenuation function 
(R). This can be done

Zzm
F [0(z
0

+ 1); T] 
(z)

dR dz

dz;

W=cm2sr:

(4)

In our case it is expedient to characterize the radia-

tion as a

E by the eective temperature temperature of the blackbody

Trabdwiahtiicohniswditehntehde

same spectral power. Comparing (4) with the radiation

of a black cavity

E = 2h03
 d0=c2[exp(h0=kTb) 1]; W=cm2sr;

on the basis of dierent physical grounds. At rst we

suggest the simplest ones, namely, that beginning from

srboeygmitoehnedsiscRteann>trcaeRlRmpmairsttshcoeomfrapgdlaeilataetxiloyiensscflrryoeiemnngesdooun(roctrehsaebopusoatrtfbhreodmo)f

wave propagation. This takes place when projections

of all central parts of galaxies lying in the sight cone

onfumlenbgetrhofRgmalaaxrieesminercgoinnge

a
nduptatkoindgistaarneace
RR2mis

. The equal

to N = nR3
=3. The total projection area of their cen-

tral parts of diameter 1 kPc is S = 0:25n
R3l2. This

196

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

area covers the part of the cross-section area of cone 
R2. Hence, only a part of radiation will pass through the cross-section 
(R) = 1 0:25Rnl2. The channel will fbt
uh(enzencf)ut=il
olyn(1Rcdl)oopes=eszdn=1zowmthd.eRenHp=ee
Rrnemd=toh0oner,atihat.tetee.nwRuaatav=teRiloemnRng(0=tophrz1stc=hrw0ae:tee2nt5hainnaklgve2)es, place practically for the optical radiation forming the observed background. Let us take for the calculation l = 6 kPc; n = 2, then Rm ' 50000 MPc; zm ' 6 103.
In the given estimation the galaxies and the stars inside the galaxies are regarded immovable relative the given spherical coordinate system with a centre at the observer. In reality there exist proper motions of the galaxies as well as the stars inside them. It is obvious that the account of these motions does not change the result obtained. Indeed, in a suciently large volume, say ' 103MPc, containing several thousand galaxies the directions of motions are distributed isotropically and the velocity values are distributed according to the normal law with the rms velocity  300km=s. So, the radiation of galaxies will have the frequency shift not more than = ' v=c ' 10 3: Owing to this fact the observed radiation temperature from each galaxy well dier from the average one not more than T=T  10 3. Due smallness of the eect and its homogeneity when adding radiation of a large number of galaxies, the in
uence of this chaotic velocities on the radiation frequency and temperature will be mutually compensated. The same can be said on the in
uence of the velocity dispersion of the galaxy stars. Thus, the uniform and isotropic microwave background xes in a statistical sense the immovable coordinate system resting on all the galaxies of the visible part of the Universe.
2. JmtheiencerMroawelateavxgepablraaexscyskigornoufonrdsrtaadriation of
In this section we give quite a general expression for the star background suitable for dierent models of the Universe. We suggest space lling with the galaxies be uniform and isotropic and their mean luminosity and dimensions be invariant in time and space. The problem is to give a calculation taking into account a contribution of the stars of dierent spectral classes, i.e. with dierent photosphere temperatures and sizes. As it is known, more than 80 per cent of stars in galaxies are those of the main sequence and hence they will determine chie
y the observed star background. For this stars the required parameters r and T are given through the star luminosity M , determining its spectral class, radius and photosphere temperature. Let us use the known formula for the relative stellar radius

r=r

lg

r=r

=

5000
T

0:2M

0:02;

(9)

where T is the photospheric temperature of the star

and M usually

gisivietns

pinhottaobglreaspahnicdvfaolruet.heThstearreslaotfiotnheMmTaiins

sequence it is approximated with a sucient accuracy by the function

T

=

26 103 0:37 M +

2:4:

(10)

Substituting (10) into (9) we have

r2 r2

= 10

0:233M+1:05:

(11)

The luminosity distribution of the main sequence

stars '(M) has been known (see, for example Lang

1974). The luminosity function '(M) is given in the

table from

form M=

in4thteo inMter=va2l0Mthat12innveoalrveths espinectetrgaelr

value class-

es B A F G K M: The intervals of M values of these

spectral classes are equal respectively to (-4,-1), (0,+3),

(iz+a4ti,o+n6)P , (+'(7M,+)9)=,

(+10,+19). We have 1. As a result, the

used normalfull radiation

will be

 r2 nm X 19 10 0;233M+1;05 '(M)
4

Zzm 0

expf(hzc+(z1+)3
1()z=)d0dRkz Tdgz

1=

=


exp

hc k0Tb

1
1:

(12)

Here T is dened by (10). Function dR=dz is determined by accepted theoretical or experimental dependence R(z). Expression (12) does not depend explicitly on the accepted nature of the redshift. Its nature manietfhxeepstescrlioomsneeldnytatmhlormoduoegldheolfcootfhntechreesttUeannfdiuvanercrdtsieocnoRss(mzRo)(l=ozg)Ry. 0RFpo(zrz,)tfho=er cH 1z=(z + 1) and so on.

3. SrUatndairivaemtriosicenroinwaavestbataicckmgrooduenldof the

Winge cwointhsidtehretghaelastxaietiscims uondiefloorfmthaenUdnisivoetrrosep.icSpinacsecallelsestimated by contemporary observations. We also suggest the mean dimensions and luminosity in the same scales to be invariant in time and in the whole Metagalaxy space. It is essential that this model follows

Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars197

from observed mean (statistical) dependences of appar-

ent luminosity m(z) and angular dimensions (z) of

the galaxies and quasars which make possible to de-

tRerm=in6e00tphez

really existing dependence R(z) equal to Mpc in the redshift interval 0  z  5

(RTr=oiRts0kpijz1,9w9h5e).re

Taking into account in R0 = 600Mpc we have

(12),

that

A X 19 10 0:233M+1:05 '(M)
4

Zzm z 1=2(z + 1)3
(z)dz 0 expfhc(z + 1)=0kTg

1=

=


exp

hc k0Tb

1
1:

(13)

HerPeaTraims getiverenAbym(a1y0),haAve=o12nlyr2andmmisRsi0b.le limits of

possible values since a strict mean value of nm, i.e.

a star number in a cubic Mpc, is unknown. Accord-

ing to the data on the population of the Local Group

containing three large galaxies with the star number

m = 1011 1012 and about two tens with the star num-

bnAemrlioesn1ei-n0o1nt1he. eaTnihndetnearavhtaalRlf10o0r=d1e62r0s0lMeAsspocna1ed0mca1in0ss,tibawklheeivc1ah0lu1me0 aoyf

be used in the background calculation. Then taking the

mhaevaTenh
se(izzce)al=ocfu1tlahteiopcneznr=terzsamullt,pswaorhtfetrohefegzbamalacxkige5rs0o0ul0n'd

6 Kpc we 7000. tempera-

ture are given in Tables 1 and 2 in the waveband from

1cHliummulabitttbseoldeopflfaionrirttessathreoexflpalawaewrmiRmiRcer=no=tnRa.RlHT0gpzrhoezue,xntrtdrshiatnepgtsoaelwbcaloitetnehdhdianbosentbyheoeeefnonidrncttteahhrlee--

val 0  z  0:02. The comparison of two tables shows

there is not any signicant dierence in the background

temperature dependence on wavelength. It can be seen

from the tables that at waves  > 1mm the background

is determined by the stars of spectral classes A F G , at

 < 1mm by those of classes B A and in the ultravio-

let by only those of class B. To check these results we

made as well the calculation of the background attenu-

ation in (z + 1)2 times due to the redshift. In this case

the dependencies remain practically unchanged, but the

ovesantleiu.me aotfeAbiosthanfoorrdtewrohliagwhesrRth=anRt0hpatzaas nadn

upper limit the Hubble

A most interesting and unexpected result of the the-

ory is the growth of the background temperature in the

submillimetre waveband. Any reasonable attempts to

eliminate this growth were failed. Finally, it has been

understood that the growth aries due to a sharp dier-

ence of the star background from the blackbody one

at submillimetre and shorter wavelengths. This has

Figure 1: A comparison of the star background spectrum

for the universe static model (solid 105) with the blackbody spectrum line)

line at at Tb

=zm2:=735K

103 7 (dotted

been shown in Fig. 1 where the star background spec-

trum is given in comparison with the blackbody one

at T = 2:7K . Theoretical and blackbody spectra at

T = 2:7K coincide in the Rayleigh-Jean's region of the

Planck's spectrum and sharply dier in the Wiens's re-

gion at  < 1mm. Here the star spectrum is practically


at and its spectral density exceeds the spectral density

of the Planck's spectrum by many orders at T = 2:7K

that causes the growth of the equivalent background

temperature. The reason of the spectra dierence is

the fact that the star background is added up basical-

ly from the Rayleigh-Jeans's parts of the star radiation

spectra which extend to optical frequencies at a high

star temperature. Really, the integral in (13)decreases

exponentially with the frequency and, hence, beginning

with some value of z it does not give any essentional

contribution in integral (13). One may conclude that

tsoahiforinesTstuhaalcktn(,ezdse+apc1l0ha)=casekpnwe0cahTtcretanu=lahcl1lcua(dspzespt+oeerrf1ms)lti=imankreisst0faoTotfrtaidhnnitedegegtrirhveaneetntieoxvonapb.lrsueeAesrss--

vational waves has its actual upper limit of integration

over z related as it is obvious with the cuto of the

star Planck's spectrum in its Wiens's region. Thus, the

background radiation is basically made at the star ra-

diation in the Rayleigh-Jeans's region. Table III gives

btehraecRkvgarl=ouuensRdo0fprazzdeefifa,tcrioehnsapraoatnctsaeibrgilzieveescnhtihwee
ayvsiezlfeeonrogftthghae. laIotcbtisiscerslveaeeynd-

from the table, that at centimeter and longer waves

 > (0:5 1)cmthe background spectrum intensity is

bounded by galaxy at   0:1 cm by

screening the cuto

at of

ztmhest(a5r

7) 103 and radiation in-

tensity in the Wiens's spectrum region. As a result,

198

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

the background radiation in the Wiens's region is deter-

mined by rather a thin layer of galaxies radiations in the

Rayleigh-Jeans's region of the spectrum. The reduction

in number of galaxies responsible for the background at

  1mm is an important factor which leads to an es-

sential increase of small-scale background 
uctuations

for shorter waves, that is conrmed by observations.

When calculating the star background we studied

how the background temperature is in
uenced by an

increase of the star photosphere temperature at wave-

lengths longer than 1cm. To estimate this in
uence we

have the only example, the Sun. Its brightness temper-

atiwanhtsau,emvrterehesetefleaocrtr0sai.olcnA0u2ltTa0stcu1i=mocmnhTnptm0oer+moamycp5eobderreue1ara0tteuph5irpasenr,ocowox0fni:hsm0cte1earaKrertnsee.lTdyAb,=etixitnlpasc0rhsre=teos(,asuzsaeled+sdsfbb1aaye)tr

remembered that the background temperature is de-

tawebarosmvtieankmeedennbatyisotnawnedoincviaatlilcauulelsvaatAilouneasanondfdtzhames.tlrimiOctintvvtaihlsueibeibloiaftsyiAszomisf

determined background

from a requirement temperature should

bthea2t.7a3tK. 0T=his3vcamluethoef

A is given in tables. It is clear, only those calculations

were used where A did not exceed the limits mentioned

above.

4. Aswtiatcrhobmtahpceakrgmirseooaunsnuodrferpmardeeidnatitcsitoinontsheoofrtyhe

Up to now extensive background measurements have been carried up to far IR close to optics. The star background theory may appear to be actual up to optical waves, so the comparison is not to be bound with the submillimetre waveband. Besides, the theory proposed explains naturally the observed small-scale space 
uctuations of the background intensity as well as a mysterious so far phenomenon of the equality of the microwave background intensity and the optical radiation of a mean galaxy including ours. These questions are considered in detail below.

4.1. The star background spectrum and observations

Its obvious, that the comparison of the theory with ob-

servations is of interest rst of all in the submillime-

tre waveband. The background measurements in this

wavelength region have already been in progress for a

quarter of a century. They have been started to con-

rm the blackbody character of radiation at this waves

followed from the Big Bang theory. rst investigations

aptenwdaevnetlelnagbtohrsator0ie<s

1mm of the

carried out by three indeUSA on the high-altitude

balloons and satellite gave contradictory results: some

Figure 2: Theoretical dependence of the star background

temperature on the wavelength for the static model of the

usunrievmeresnetadtaztam

= (5 7) (crosses)

103

as compared with the mea-

gcroetavsaelguoets Note, the

TmTbbe==asu(23r:7e:6mKe,5nt:th5se)Kgoitvh(isneerges

raefvteierwcoorfreBcltiitoenr 1t9o7d4e)-. a higher temperature

then 2:7K were and are being questioned since they

contradict the standard cosmology theory. However,

the data mentioned have last their meaning because of

uncertainty in the value of the observation wavelength

due to a wide band comparable with the mean frequen-

cy of reception.

At present there have been reliable results in the

work of Matsumoto (1988) at wavelengths 1.16, 0.7,

0.48, 0.137 and 0.1 mm the accuracy of which is not

worse than (3-5)%. According to the IRAS (infrared

astronomical satellite) program the background mea-

surements have been carried out at 0.1 mm and 0.6

mm, they have been presented in Matsomoto's pa-

per after correction. Most of these results are giv-

en in 
ux units W=cm2:sr:Hz with exception of da-

ta at 1.16, 0.7 and 0.48 mm for which there have

been the background brightness temperatures as well.

The values of the background temperatures for rest of

the waves have been calculated according to relation

Bm(ea)su=re2dhra03d=ica2t(ieoxnp


hux=kiTnb

1), where B() W=cm2srHz . A

| is test

the cal-

culation of the temperature for three above mentioned

waves have proved the correctness of the temperature

calculation by this relation for other 
uxes.

Recently the measurements of the cosmic microwave

background were carried out by satellite COBE (Cos-

mic Background Explorer) with a help of receiver FI-

RAS (Far-Infrared Absolute Spectrometer) in the wave-

length band 0.5-5 mm (Mather, et al 1994). The back-

ground temperature in this continuous band have been

found to be equal to Tb = 2:726 0:01K. The satellite

Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars199

COBE was also used according to the Program DIRBE

(Diuz Infra Red Background Experiment) to get up-

per limits of background values in the direction of the

south ecliptic pole at wavelengths 240, 143, 100 and 60

m (Kowada, et al. 1994). There have also been the

value of the background upper limit at  = 154m. We

have used as well the review of the background measure-

ments at radio wavelengths (Kogut, et al. 1988). Fi-

nally,to make the picture of the background spectrum

full we ventured to use data at 0:3 0:8m (Leinert,

et al. 1995; Lang 1974) and in the ultraviolet at 912

angstrom (Vikhlinin 1995). All this mentioned data

have been tabulated in Table IV in units of the spectral


ux density and brightness temperature. Fig. 2 gives

a comparison of these data with the theoretical expres-

sion of the background spectrum and Fig. 3 compares

them with the background brightness temperature de-

pendence on the wavelength. As it is seen from gures,

the theoretical dependencies are quite well conrmed

by the experimental data not only at IR but also in

optics and the ultraviolet. This is an absolutely sud-

den the

sruebsmultil.lSimometeredwivaevregbeanucendf.orWTebt(hi)nkcatnhisbemaseyenbeina

consequence of a systematic error of the measurements

which authors had been experiencing a quite natural

subconscious pressure of theoretical prejudices. How-

ever, we should note that this divergence is eliminated

either by an account of nonblackbodiness of the star

radiation in the Wien's region or by an account of in-

tergalactic absorption of optical waves or at last by a

small reduction in estimates of a relative number of

brightest stars in class B. The value 0:15% given in

literature and used by ours may be overestimated due

to the observational selection. Finally, it must always

be kept in mind that the background measurements at

wavelengths shorter than 0.5mm are aggravated by a

possible impact of the interplanetary and interstar dust

radiation. Some hypotheses given in the literature re-

port that the observed background at   0:1mm is

determined to a great extent by the dust at T ' 20K

and so on. The uncertainty of corrections of this radi-

ation explains naturally a large spread of the data on


uxes of the cosmic origin. However, despite this fact,

one can denitely conclude that the experimental data

in a wide wave interval do not conrm the hypothesis of

the background relic origin and are in a good agreement

with the background star theory.

Recently the background measurements have been

made by the population of levels of the hyperne struc-

ture at mm waves in carbon clouds with the redshifts

z = 1:776 and z = 2:9 being near quasars. In the rst

case the rst level of the carbon hyperne structure

has has

bbeenenoubsteadineadnd(Stohnegateilma,peetraatlu.re19T9b4()1.:7T) h=is

13:5K result

ts formally 2:73(z + 1).

HthoewBevigerB, taongextphleaoinrythwehsiechexgpievreismTebn(tzs)w=e

cannot exclude possible energy pumping from a neigh-

Figure 3: Theoretical spectrum of the star background at
z(cmro=sse(5s) 7) 103 as compared with the measurement data

boring quasar (in the rst case quasar Q1331+1700), so these data were not included in Table IV.
In conclusion one cannot but note an extraodinary stability of the calculated background spectra to the aafolntrdethrai.ttsioIdtnesepvoeefnndthetneucnceeadlocnuoluatthtieothnwaaptvaterhlaeemngsepttheercstzrmuA(m;')(wMaans)d;nzosmot practically changed if we had used a simplied expression (6) for stars of classes FG.

4.2. A mysterious equality of the background energy density and the optical radiation energy of our Galaxy stars has a simple explanation

As it is seen from (2-4) the radiation received by

radiotelescopes in a suciently narrow band formed from the radiation of galaxies disposed

dat0diifs-

ferent distances R along the line of sight. Each galaxy

contributes therewith only at a frequency correspond-

ing to its radiation

distance, i.e. of the galaxy

em(iRtt)ed=at0o(tzhe+r

1). No other frequencies of

its spectrum is received by the radiotelescope tuned at

ftrioeqnusepneccytru0m.

If the galaxies have the Planck's radiaeach galaxy contribution is determined

by the Planck's function at frequency (R) and is equal

tsnoiugmnFab[lear(tRof)fr;egTqaudlaenx0ic]ey.sIfto0risiesaaalcsdhodsienedetenurpvfrafolr.momT(h2ei)qs-u(t4aa)lkteehsaeptcltatihvceee

obviously because the number of galaxies in each inter-

val R at the

gorboswetrhvserasdencRre2a
sedsRinanRd2thtiemirersadaniadt,iohnenencee,rgiys

proportional to n
 dR, i.e. does not depend on dis-

tance but only on dR. In doing so we can choose dR in

such a way as to have only one galaxy in each interval.

200

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

It results that each galaxy in the line of sight would be

a lantern of a monochromatic optical radiation of dif-

ferent colors of the Planck's spectrum. However, from

the observer's point of view (he is tuned on frequency

n0ea)rthtehye

are one-color observer. As

radiators a result,

atthefrecqounternicbyutio0npolafcaedll

the will

galaxies in the radiation be equal to the sum of

raelclerivaeddiataitonfrseqautenalclyfre0-

quencies of the Planck's spectrum from one galaxy. It

follows immediately according to (2-6) that the back-

ground energy 
ux is simply equal to the integral over

frequency energy 
ux of the optical radiation of one

mean galaxy.

The equality of the blackground energy density and

the radiation density of the stars of our Galaxy was

discovered more than 15 years ago and was a serious

theoretical problem not being solved in the model of

the background relic origin. Contrary to this, this fact

follows naturally from the theory of the background

star origin in a boundness stationary and uniform over

all mean parameters Universe. Below we give the cor-

responding calculations for the volume density of the

star background energy.

Expression (5) gives the value of the observed radi-

a4t=niciotnyanw
duexionbstpetageircnatrttaihnlegdfoeovnllesoriwtyfir.negqMueuexnlptcriypeslysii0onngfrfoiotmrbtyzheerdovo0tlouaminnde-

density of the background energy



r2n

m

Z1 0

8hc303

d0

Zzm 0

(z + 1)3 
(z) dR exp h0(z + 1)=kT

1=

=

Z1 0

8c033h

exp

d0 h0=kTb

1

=

4
c

Tb4:

(14)

AdraetdniTsaibttyi=on2bv:7o=Klumt0h:e2ed4reeingvsh=itctympao3rf.ttghNievoeswtsatrlhseetorfuaosduicaratGlicoaunllaavxtoeylu. tmAhese it is obvious we should take herewith in (14) z = 0 and the mean star density nm equal to m=0:5 l3, where lis a mean diameter of the Galaxy.



=

2r2 m
l2

Z1
0

c3(ex8phh003=kdT0

1) =

=



2r2 m
l2

 T 4  Tb4

4
c

Tb4

ethqeu'Favloair4tclyuteTo=ifb4nt6h=s0qe0uv0aboKrle=u,mb0lre:a=2cd4ke1een5tvss=kitmiPisec3sc,looTmfshetuh=tseo1tmuh0nei1ci0tra,opawTnpbadrvo=,exhib2eman:7cacKktee-, ground energy and the optical radiation of our Galaxy is explained by the identity of the nature of the background and the star optical radiation and as well by the

Figure 4: The measurement results of the small-scale
space 
uctuations of the background temperature T=T as a function of the radiotelescope antenna pattern width in minutes of arc: 
 |the measurement of Parijskij; 2 | the measurements of Berlin. Solid line | the theoretical curve

fact that our Galaxy is close to the mean statistical one. Naturally, this coincidence could not be explained from the point of view of the background relic origin,that was specially noted in the review of Burbidge (1989).

4.3. Background small-scale anisotropy
The spatial variations of the background radiation intensity are determined by a change of x() of integral (6) as dependent on direction  of the antenna. In this way according to (7)

Tb()

=

hc=k0

ln


1

+

1
x



:

Usually x 1 >> nd a derivative

1 and of log x

Tibn=T(6b)(a)n=d

x=x. obtain

Then we x=x =

2 r=r + n=n + m=m, here r; n; m are dis-

persions of corresponding values. The value r is a mean

dimension, so r ' of stars in galaxies ,

0. as

itTihsekndoiswpner,siisonpomf

the .

number

To determine the dispersion of n it is necessary to

account the total number of galaxies in the antenna pat-

tern up to the Rtemnnadepeelnddionfg

oenectiavcecodridstianngcteooTf avbisleibIiIliIt.yInRteh(e)ansight equal to 
 sterad there will be

Npa1van=Nrp di=an0=b:ln3=ep3s0Nn:n3n=R300:Ra(3:n33()3d3RR)
3m(3e.
()3)D
g
Tau.lef=arTTxothimoee=sniwnwphdieet(nrphee=nnddi=snenpn=N)ecn2re=s+=0ioo:(3nf3rRNma3en=N=(Ndmo)m)==
2

Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars201

Figure 5: Experimental dependence of T=T as a func- Figure 6: Spatial dependence of the value X =

tion of observation of wavelength

[( T=T)2 m 1]
 on the wavelength (solid line) as com-

pared with the experimental data of TableIV (points)

and we have nally

T T

=

p1m p1

+

m=0:33 n R()3 
:

(15)

The measurement results of background tempera-

ture 
uctuations have been given in the review of Par-

ijskij (1990). These results are shown in Fig. 4 in the

form of the dependence of lg T=T on lg 
 in the in-

terval 0 < 
  2, containing 73 data points. The

measurement of T=T were carried out in the wave-

length of the

interval antenna

10 1  pattern

00:020

50


cpm


at


a dierent 30000:

width

All measurement results are within interval 10 5 

T=T  10 3. It is not possible to reveal any regular

behavior in the dependence of T=T on 
 over all data

given in Fig. 4 due to a strong spread of data composed

of measurement of dierent authors and measurement

procedures. However, we hope that the data of the

same authors for dierent 
 are most free of relative

errors. These data are those of Parijskij and Berlin.

According to the data of these authors in Fig. 4 we

have clear dependencies of T=T on 
. Here as well

there has been at he theoretical dependence calculated

ffpooerrrimn0e=>nt2a1,lmdmmat=awho1fi0cP1h0aarasijnissdkisjeReaenn(dw)eBl=leral4gin0re. e1Ts0hw3uMitsh,ptcthheveaoelbxid--

served small-scale background anisotropy is explained

by discreteness of the background radiation sources, the

galaxy stars. Besides, the calculation presented pre-

dicts according to (15) and Table III the dependence of

T=T on the observation wave through the change of

the size of the galaxy eective layer taking part in the

background formation. To reveal this dependence one

should exclude the in
uence of 
. For this purpose we

have sampled the measurement from the data of Fig.

4 in a suciently narrow band 0:8  lg
  1:2 and

then have plotted the dependence T=T on . Fig.

5 presents this dependence which conrms the prediction. The desired dependence was determined as well from all the data. One can obtain easily from (15) the dependence excluding the in
uence of 
, namely

X

"
=

T 2 T

1
m

#




=

0:33

m
n R3()

:

Here T=T and 
 are the corresponding experimental data from Fig. 4. Fig. 6 gives the experimental dependence of X on  in comparison with the th theoretical one. The fact of their proper coincidence is a strong argument in favor of the theory of the star background formation.

5. Sstthtaaenradmlatreidcrrnocaowtsiavmveeotlbhoagecoykrmgiersooduenldanindtihne

For general formula (12) will do to calculate the back-

ground in this case. A specic point for the standard

cosmology models is a restriction of the integration lim-

it in time

o(1f 2th) eugpaltaoxizems.

<
In

10 owing to a limited existence the process of calculation for the

cfwdholRaohrsse=terthddehzeemcd=HfioosRt0dllaeoH1nlw=c=wie(ne-zRrghe+Hfdaosv1rhie)msi2ftttoharenteadlUaktetnihiotvehneegrRsetenh(zeerr)oaard=leituecixscH.par0lIene1sxzstpi=hor(inezss+sc(i1a1o2s)ne),

AH X 19 10 0:233M+1:05 '(M)
4

Z10 (z + 1)
(z)dz 0 expfhc(z + 1)=0kTg

1=

202

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

=


exp

hc kTb0

1
1;

(16)

where AH
km=s Mpc

a=nd
r(2zn)

m=

c1H. 0

1

.

Let us take H0 = 75

Table V gives the calculation result at the mini-

mum value from where

of A for two values it is seen that the star

obfaczkmgro=un5d

and 10 temper-

ature exceeds 2:7K at submillimetre waves and makes

its noticeable part at millimetre waves. From that it

follows an unambiguous conclusion that the observed

microwave background is to be consisted of the sum of

star and relic contributions. In other words the relic

background has no place at millimetre and especially

submillimetre waves. Hence, we have a denite incon-

sistency of the Big Bang theory to explain the observed

microwave background radiation.

From the given calculation it is clear that none of

the models with a hot origin can explain the microwave

background by the optical radiation of stars. In this

case the existence region of the galaxies form is get-

ting too small limited by the interval z  10. Here

we include the in
ation model and the models based

on conformal metrics (Hoyle and Narlikar 1972, Troit-

skij 1987, Petit 1988). The models of a steady-state,

i.e. nonexpanding, nonlimited in space and time Uni-

verse are in a particular position. We have here the

model which explains the redshift by \quantum aging."

In this case, as it is known, the quantum energy is

supposed to have an exponential attenuation with dis-

tance, that background

gisivaelssoRex=plaRin0eldn(bzy+th1e)

. Here optical

observation radiation of

stars. In conclusion we have to note, that microwave

background distortions associated with the interaction

of relativistic electrons with photons etc. considered in

detail by Sel'dovich and Sunyaev (1992) are also valid

in the model of the background star origin.

6. Conclusion

All observatiounal imlications of the MBR star origin theory of the stationary nonlimited in space and time Universe are conrmed by all known experimental data. The theoretical background spectrum obtained is conrmed by experimental data in a wide band from decimdeemtroicnsttoraIRtesaandp,lapurosibbaleblmy,eecvheannitsomopotfitchael wbaacvkegs.roTuhnids formation resulting in a conclusion that MBR is not a perfect blackbody radiation and cannot be coupled to the matter at a earlier epoch. An additional factor othfetrMusBtRisetnheergeyxpdleannsaittyionanodf tahemoypstteicriaolursadeqiautaiolintyeno-f ergy density of stars in our Galaxy, as well as the cause of background small-scale anisotropy which predict value and dependence on the antenna pattern width and observation wavelength are conrmed by the measure-

ments. All this is a serious evidence against the idea of Big Bang and in favor of the steady-state Universe hypothesis.
References
[1] Yu.V. Baryshev. \Progress of Science and Technology," Gravitation and Cosmology, 4 (1992), (Moscow, in Russian).
[2] A.D. Bliter. IAU Symposium N63: \Conformation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data," 1974 (USA).
[3] G.R. Burbidge. Int. J. Theor. Phys., 28, 983 (1989). [4] A.G. Doroshkevich, I.D. Novikov. DAN USSR, 154,
809 (1964). [5] F. Hoyle and J.V. Narlicar. NNRAS, 155, 305 (1972). [6] M. Kawada, J.J. Bock, V.V. Hristov et al. Ap. J. 425,
L-89 (1994). [7] A. Kogut, M. Beksanelli, G. DeAmici et al. Ap.J. 325,
1 (1988). [8] K.R. Lang. Astophysical Formulae, New York (1974). [9] C.H. Leinert, P. Vassanen, K. Lehtenen. Astron. As-
troph. Sup. Ser.,112, 99 (1995). [10] J.C. Mather, E.S. Cheng, D.A. Cottengham. Ap. J.,
420, 439 (1994). [11] T. Matsumoto, H. Hayakawa, H. Matsyo et al. Ap. J.
329, 567 (1988). [12] G.C. McVittie. Phys. Rev. 128, 2871 (1962). [13] Yu.N.. Parijskij and D.V. Korol'kov. Progress of Sci-
ence and Technology. Astronomy, 31, 73 (1986). [14] Yu.N. Parijskij and R.A. Sunyaev. IAU Symposium
N63: \Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data," 1974 (USA). [15] J.P. Petit. Modern Physics Letters A. 3, 1527 (1988). [16] E. Segal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 4798 (1993). [17] A. Songaila, L. Cowre, C. Hogan, M. Bugers. Nature, 368, 599 (1994). [18] A. Songaila et al. Nature, 371, 43 (1994). [19] V.S. Troitsky. Ap. Space Sci., 139, 389 (1987). [20] V.S. Troitsky. Ap. Space Sci., 201, 203 (1993). [21] V.S. Troitskij. Izvestiya Vuzov, Radiozika, 36, 857 (1993). [22] V.S. Troitskij. NIRFI Preprint, N400 (1994). [23] V.S. Troitskij. UFN, 65, 703 (1995). [24] A. Vikhlinin. Pis'ma v A. Zh., 21, 413 (1995). [25] Ya.B. Zel'dovich and I.D. Novikov. \Relativistic Astrophysics," Moscow, 1967 (in Russian). [26] Ya.B. Zel'dovich and R.A. Sunyaev. \Astrophysics and Cosmic Physics," ed Sunyaev R.A., Nauka, Moscow, 1982.

Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars203

Table I

The star A and z

background radiation in

m

.

Columns 2-6 are radiation. The

the rst

the static model of the relative contributions of line of the columns 2-6

utnhievesrtsaersatofRs=peRct0razl1c=2lasfsoersdBiAereFntGcoKmbMinianttioontsheofbpaackragmroeutnedrs is a relative number of the stars of the given class.

A = 0.11488E - 10 MAX Z= 7000.0

(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000

B/S
0.013%

A/S
1.40%

FG/S
7.47%

K/S
9.29%

M/S
81.82%

T back

0.986 0.014 0.000 0.000 0.000 3668.36

0.219 0.560 0.195 0.023 0.003 520.08

0.238 0.543 0.189 0.025 0.005 71.95

0.231 0.547 0.191 0.025 0.005 11.88

0.165 0.568 0.228 0.032 0.006 3.09

0.061 0.480 0.358 0.075 0.025 2.56

0.053 0.454 0.373 0.086 0.034 2.73

0.050 0.445 0.378 0.090 0.037 2.81

0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038 2.83

0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.84

0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.85

0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.85

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.85

A = 0.25633E -10 MAX Z = 5000.0

(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000

B/S
0.013%

A/S
1.40%

FG/S
7.47%

K/S
9.29%

M/S
81.82%

T back

0.986 0.014 0.000 0.000 0.000 3740.04

0.220 0.560 0.193 0.023 0.003 535.29

0.237 0.543 0.190 0.025 0.005 74.92

0.228 0.549 0.193 0.026 0.005 12.68

0.141 0.570 0.245 0.036 0.007 3.53

0.057 0.469 0.365 0.080 0.028 2.72

0.052 0.450 0.375 0.087 0.035 2.73

0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038 2.74

0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.038 2.74

0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.74

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.75

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.75

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.75

A=0.88421E - 10 MAX Z = 3000.0

(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000

B/S
0.013%

A/S
1.40%

FG/S
7.47%

K/S
9.29%

M/S
81.82%

T back

0.986 0.014 0.000 0.000 0.000 3857.52

0.222 0.561 0.191 0.023 0.003 560.66

0.235 0.544 0.191 0.025 0.005 80.00

0.220 0.551 0.197 0.026 0.005 14.13

0.108 0.558 0.281 0.044 0.010 4.31

0.054 0.458 0.371 0.084 0.032 2.89

0.051 0.447 0.377 0.089 0.037 2.73

0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038 2.67

0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.66

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.65

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.65

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 2.65

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 2.65

204
(mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 100.000 (mm) 0.0001 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 30.000 100.000 200.000 400.000 800.000 700.000 1000.000

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

The same as in Table I, but for the Hubble law R=RH * z.

A = 0.11362E - 11 MAX Z=3000.0

B/S

A/S

FG/S

K/S

M/S

0.013% 1.40% 7.47% 9.29% 81.82%

0.994 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.000

0.350 0.517 0.121 0.011 0.001

0.313 0.520 0.147 0.017 0.003

0.285 0.535 0.159 0.019 0.003

0.119 0.573 0.263 0.038 0.007

0.055 0.460 0.370 0.084 0.032

0.051 0.447 0.377 0.089 0.037

0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038

0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039

A = 0.25601E - 11 MAX 2=5000.0

B/S

A/S

FG/S

K/S

M/S

0.013% 1.40% 7.47% 9.29% 81.82%

0.994 0.006 0.000 0.000 0.000

0.351 0.516 0.120 0.011 0.001

0.315 0.519 0.146 0.017 0.003

0.296 0.529 0.154 0.018 0.003

0.166 0.582 0.218 0.029 0.005

0.058 0.472 0.364 0.079 0.028

0.052 0.451 0.375 0.087 0.035

0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038

0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038

0.050 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039

T back
3381.34 488.63 71.29 12.82 4.09 2.86 2.73 2.68 2.67 2.66 2.66 2.66 2.66
T back
3264.10 465.14 66.45 11.40 3.28 2.68 2.73 2.76 2.76 2.77 2.77 2.77 2.77

Table II

Table III

The dependence of the eective distance of dierent spectral class on the observation wavelength.

cm0 10

T = 25 103 Z17e5 103

1

17.5 103

0.1

1750

0.01

175

0.001

17.5

0.0001

1.75

T = 10 103 Z70e 103 7.103 700 70 7 0.7

T = 6 103 Z42e 103 4.2 103 420 42 4.2 0.42

T = 4 103 Z28e 103 2.8 103 280 28 2.8 0.28

Experimental Evidence of the Microwave Background Radiation Formation through the thermal radiation of Metagalaxy stars205

Table IV

Experimental measurement data of the background radiation spectral density and its brightness temperature as dependent on wavelength. 1-16 - Kogut 1988, 17-18 - Meyer 1986, 19-24 - Matsumoto 1988, 25-36 - Mather 1994, 37-43 -
Kawada 1994, 44-46 - Leinert 1995, 47 - Lang 1974, 48 -Vikhlinin 1995.

No  [mm] 1 120.000 2 81.000 3 63.000 4 30.000 5 12.000 6 9.090 7 3.330 8 2.640 9 2.640 10 1.320 11 1.320 12 3.510 13 1.980 14 1.480 15 1.140 16 1.000 17 2.640 18 1.320 19 1.160 20 0.709 21 0.481 22 0.262 23 0.137 24 0.102

B() 10 24 W cm2 sr Hz 0.522 1.049 1.801 7.297 42.655 69.962 252.266 331.158 342.627 340.065 335.124 276.694 477.012 456.029 231.624 141.735 339.750 360.202 302.769 116.866 29.404 3.678 82.966 3.700

Tb [oK] No 2.780 25 2.580 26 2.700 27 2.610 28 2.780 29 2.810 30 2.600 31 2.700 32 2.740 33 2.760 34 2.750 35 2.800 36 2.950 37 2.920 38 2.650 39 2.550 40 2.730 41 2.800 42 2.790 43 2.956 44 3.179 45 4.125 46 8.650 47 8.740 48

 [mm] 350.000 125.000 80.000 70.000 40.000 10.000 5.000 4.000 3.000 2.000 1.000 0.500 0.240 0.154 0.134 0.130 0.100 0.095 0.060 0.0008 0.00035 0.0005 0.00065 0.00000912

B() 10 24 W cm2 sr Hz 0.060 0.467 1.105 1.465 4.254 59.173 169.739 226.599 306.290 382.538 204.305 8.321 5.600 1.330 5.800 4.800 3.300 5.000 4.800 0.650 0.135 0.250 0.450 0.0001

Tb [oK] 2.700 2.700 2.650 2.700 2.640 2.800 2.726 2.726 2.726 2.726 2.726 2.726 7.013 5.867 7.221 7.305 8.820 9.436 13.726 554.560 1126.722 826.945 662.294 3181.021

Table V

The star component of the background for the closed model of the universe in the standard cosmology.

A = 0.15000 E-11 MAX Z = 10.0

(mm) 0.001 0.010 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 30.000 100.000 500.000 1000.000

B/S
0.013%

A/S

FG/S

1.40% 7.47%

K/S
9.29%

M/S
81.82%

T back

0.121 0.579 0.260 0.035 0.005 469.81

0.057 0.466 0.366 0.081 0.030 54.08

0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038 5.98

0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 1.28

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.66

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.34

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.18

0.049 0.440 0.380 0.092 0.039 0.09

0.048 0.437 0.381 0.093 0.041 0.03

0.046 0.430 0.385 0.096 0.044 0.01

0.039 0.402 0.397 0.107 0.055 0.00

0.034 0.385 0.405 0.114 0.062 0.00

206
(mm) 0.001 0.010 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 30.000 100.000 500.000 1000.000 (mm) 0.001 0.010 0.100 0.500 1.000 2.000 4.000 8.000 30.000 100.000 500.000 1000.000

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin

A = 0.15000 E-12 MAX Z = 10.0

B/S
0.013%

A/S
1.40%

FG/S
7.47%

K/S
9.29%

M/S
81.82%

T back

0.121 0.579 0.260 0.035 0.005 437.20

0.057 0.466 0.366 0.081 0.030 49.80

0.050 0.444 0.378 0.090 0.038 5.46

0.049 0.442 0.379 0.091 0.039 1.16

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.60

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.31

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.16

0.049 0.440 0.380 0.092 0.039 0.08

0.048 0.437 0.381 0.093 0.041 0.02

0.046 0.430 0.385 0.096 0.044 0.01

0.039 0.402 0.397 0.107 0.055 0.00

0.034 0.385 0.405 0.114 0.062 0.00

A = 0.15000 E - 12 MAX Z=5.0

B/S
0.013%

A/S 1.40%

FG/S
7.47%

K/S
9.29%

M/S
81.82%

T back

0.116 0.578 0.265 0.036 0.005 436.06

0.055 0.460 0.370 0.083 0.032 49.35

0.050 0.443 0.379 0.090 0.038 5.39

0.049 0.441 0.379 0.091 0.039 1.15

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.59

0.049 0.441 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.30

0.049 0.440 0.380 0.091 0.039 0.16

0.049 0.439 0.380 0.092 0.040 0.08

0.048 0.434 0.383 0.094 0.042 0.02

0.044 0.422 0.388 0.099 0.047 0.01

0.035 0.387 0.404 0.113 0.061 0.00

0.031 0.372 0.411 0.119 0.067 0.00

& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 207{224 Spacetime Substance,

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

THE MEASURING OF ETHER-DRIFT VELOCITY AND
KINEMATIC ETHER VISCOSITY WITHIN OPTICAL
WAVES BAND
Yu.M. Galaev1
The Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics of NSA in Ukraine, 12 Ac. Proskury St., Kharkov, 61085 Ukraine

Received November 15, 2002

The experimental hypothesis verication of the ether existence in nature, i.e. the material medium, responsible fvoerloeclietcytraonmdatghneeteitchweravkeinsepmraotpiacgvaitsicoonsihtyashbaesebneepnerpforrompoesde.dTahned orpeatilcizaeldm. eTahsuerrinesgulmtsetohfosdysotfemthaetiecthmeeramsuorveemmeenntst do not contradict the original hypothesis statements and can be considered as experimental imagination conrmation of the ether existence in nature, as the material medium.

The experimental hypothesis verication of the ether existence in nature, i.e. material medium, responspiebrlfeorfmoredeleecatrrloiemr aingntehteicwwoarkvses[1p-r3o],pawgiathtiionnmhiallsimbeeteenr radio waves band, by the phase method. The results of the experiment [1-3] do not contradict the original hypothesis statements, based on the ether model of V.A. Atsukovsky [4-6]. In the model [4-6] the ether is introduced by the material medium composed of separate particles, that lls in the world space, has the properties of viscous and coercible gas, is the construction material for all material formations. The physical elds represent the ether various movement forms, i.e. the ether is the material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. The experimental model basis [4-6] was, rst of all, the positive results of the ether drift search published by D.C. Miller in 1922-1926 [7-9] and A.A. Michelson, F.G. Pease and F. Pearson in 1929 [10].
The experiment [7-9] is performed within the electromagnetic waves optical band, diered by careful preparation, veried methods of the investigation conducting and statistically signicant measurement restuoltths.e Tethheermiemasaugriendateitohnesradvraiifltapbaleraamt ethteartstmimisem, aastcshteadtionary medium. Orbital component of the ether drift velocity, stipulated by the Earth movement around the Sun with the velocity 30 km/sec, was not detected. Mheiilglehrt oofbt2a6i5nemd, atbhoavte tthhee estehaerlevderlif(tCvleevloelceintyd,aUt StAhe) has the value about 3 km/sec, and at the height of 1830 m (Mount Wilson observatory, USA) | about 10
1e-mail: galaev@ire.kharkov.ua; Ph.: +38 (0572) 27-30-52

km/sec. The apex coordinates the Solar system move-

ment were declination

deter+m6in5ed. :

direct ascension Such movement is

  17:5h, almost per-

pendicular to an ecliptic plain (coordinates of the North

Pole ecliptic:   18h ,   +66). Miller showed, that

the observed eects can be explained, if to accept, that

the ether stream has a galactic (space) origin and the

velocity more than 200 km/sec. Almost perpendicu-

larly directional orbital component of the velocity is

lost on this background. Miller referred the velocity

decrease of the ether drift from 200 km/sec up to 10

km/sec to unknown reasons.

Some peculiarities of the experiment results [7-9]

and [10], are explained by the ether viscosity in the

works [4-6]. In this case the boundary layer, in which

the ether movement velocity (the ether drift) increas-

es with the height growth above the Earth's surface, is

formed at the relative movement of the solar System

and the ether near the Earth's surface.

In the works [1-3] it is shown, that the results of sys-

tematic experimental investigations within radio waves

band can be explained by the wave propagation phe-

nomenon in the moving medium of a space origin with

a vertical velocity gradient in this medium stream near

the Earth's surface. The gradient layer availability can

be explained by this medium viscosity, i.e. the feature

proper to material media, the media composed of sep-

amraaltegrpaadriteincltess.wTasheeqmuaelatnov8a.l6uemo/fstehce mm.eaTsuhreevdemloacixtiy-

comparison of the suspected ether drift, measured in

the experiments [1-3], [7-9] and [10], is performed in the

works [1-3]. The place distinctions of geographic lati-

tudes and their heights above the sea level are taken

208

Yu.M. Galaev

into account in these experiments conducting at comparison. It is obtained, that in the experiment [1-3] the ether drift velocity is within 6124 : : :8490 m/sec, that according to the value order coincide with the data of the works [7-9] and [10], which are within 6000 : : :10000 m/sec. The comparison result can be considered as mutual truthfulness conrmation of the experiments [1-3], [7-9] and [10].
The positive results of three experiments [1-3], [79], [10] give the basis to consider the eects detected in these experiments, as medium movement developments, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. Such medium was called as the ether [11] at the times of Maxwell, Michelson and earlier. The conclusion was made in the works [1-3], that the measurement results within millimeter radio waves band can be considered as the experimental hypothesis conrmation of the material medium existence in nature such as the ether. Further discussions of the experiment results [1-3] have shown the expediency of additional experimental analysis of the ether drift problem in an optical wave band.
Experiments [7-9] and [10] are performed with optical interferometers manufactured according to the cruciform Michelson's schema [12,13]. The work of such interferometer based on the light passing in a forward direction and returning it to the observing point along the same path. The Michelson's interferometer sensitivity was low to the original ether drift eects. The measured value D in such a device, i.e. visually observed bands oset of an interference pattern expressed in terms of a visible bandwidth, is proportional to velocity ratio quadrate of the ether drift W to the light velocity c, the optical length of the light beam l and is inversely proportional to the wave length of electromagnetic emission (light)  [12].

D = (l=) (W=c)2 :

(1)

We shall call the interval, which a beam passes in the interferometer measuring part, as the optical length of the light beam. The research methods and experiments in the investigations of the ether drift, in which the measured value is proportional (W=c)2 was called as the "methods and experiments of the second order". Accordingly the methods and experiments, in which the measured value is proportional to the rst ratio extent W=c are called as the methods and experiments of the rst order. The ratio is W/c  1 at the expected value in the experiments of Michelson, Miller W  30 km/sec. The methods of the second order are ineective at this requirement. So at W  30 km/sec the method of the second order in 10000 (!) times succumbs on sensitivity to the method of the rst order. However at that time the methods of the rst order, suitable for the ether drift velocity measuring, were not known.
The expression (1) allows to estimate the diculties, with which the explorers of the ether drift confronted

in the rst attempts while observing the eects of the second order. So in the widely known rst experiment

of Michelson 1881 [12], at the suspected velocity value

of the ether drift W  30 km/sec, with the interferometer having parameters:   6 10 7 m; l  2:4 m, it was expected to observe the value D  0:04 of the band. And it is in the requirements of considerable

band shivering of an interference pattern. In the work

[12] Michelson marked: "The band were very indistinct

and they were dicult for measuring in customary con-

ditions, the device was so sensitive, that even the steps

on the sidewalk tory caused the

icnomaphleutnedrbeadndmsevtearnsisfhrionmg!"th. eLoabtseerr,vain-

1887, Michelson, also in his world-known work [14], to-

gether with E.V.Morly, once again marked the essential

deciencies of his rst experiment as for the ether drift

[12]: "In the rst experiment one of the basic considered

diculties consisted in the apparatus rotating without

the distorting depositing, the second | in its exclusive

sensitivity to vibrations. The last was so great, that

it was impossible to see interference bands, except short

intervals at the business-time in the city, even at 2 a.m.

At last, as it was marked earlier, the value, which should

be measured, i.e. the interference bands oset because
of something on the interval, smaller, than 1=20 of the

interval between them, is too small, to determine it,

moreover at laying inaccuracies of the experiment".
In Miller's interferometer, for sensitivity increase,

the optical path length in each of shoulders reached up

to 64 meters [7-9]. It was gained due to applying of

multiple re
ection. The actual length of shoulders was

reduced up to 4 meters. In the experiment [10] the

optical length of the path reached 26 meters. In the

experiments [7-9] and [10] the interferometers laid on

rafts, placed in tanks with quicksilver, that allowed to

remove the in
uence of exterior mechanical clutters.

The positive results of Miller's experiment by virtue

of their general physical signicance attracted the physi-

cists' great attention at that time. In the monographs

[15] 150, devoted to the ether drift's problem and refer-

ring to 1921-1930, are mentioned that almost everyone

were concentrated on the discussion of Miller's results.

The possible in
uencing of the dicult considered ex-

terior reasons (temperature, pressure, solar radiation,

air streams etc.) on the optical cruciform interferom-

eter, sensitive to them, which had considerable overall

dmimosetnwsiiodnesly[1i6n]tihnesMe iwlleorr'kss.exBpeesriidmeesnbtsy wvairstudeisocuf smseed-

thodical limitations being in the works [7-9] and [10],

their authors did not manage to show experimentally

correctly, that the movement, detected in their exper-

iments, can be explained by the Earth relative move-

ment and the medium of material origin, responsible

for electromagnetic waves propagation [1-3]. However

the most essential reason, which made Miller's con-

temporaries consider his experiments erratic, was that

in numerous consequent works, for example, such as

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

209

[17-20], Miller's results were not conrmed. In the experiments [17-20] so-called the \zero results" were obtained, i.e. the ether drift was not detected.
Thus, taking into consideration the works deciencies [7-9], [10] and a major number of experiments with a zero result available, it is possible to understand the physicists' mistrust to the works [7-9], [10] at that time, the results of which pointed the necessity of the fundamental physical concept variations. The analytical review of the most signicant experiments, performed with the purpose of the ether drift search, is explained in the works [1-3, 21].
In 1933 D.K. Miller, in his summary work [22], performed the comparative analysis of multiple unsuccessful attempts of his followers to detect the ether drift experimentally. He paid attention that in all such attempts, except the experiment [10], optical interferometers were placed in hermetic metallic chambers. The authors of these experiments tried to guard the devices from exposures with such chambers. In the experiment [10] it was placed into a fundamental building of the optical workshop at the Mount Wilson observatory for stabilizing the interferometer temperature schedule. The hermetic metallic chamber was not applied, and the ether drift was detected. Its velocity had the value W  6000 m/sec. Miller made the conclusion:
"Massive non-transparent shields available are undesirable while exploring the problem of ether capturing. The experiment should be made in such a way that there were no shields between free ether and light way in the interferometer".
Later, new opportunities for conducting experiments on the ether drift discovery have appeared also after the instruments occurrence based on completely diverse ideas (resonators, masers, Messbauer's eect etc.). Such experiments were held [23-26]. And again the massive metallic chamber usage was the common instrumental error of these experiments. In the works [23,24,26] there were the metallic resonators, in the work [25] | a lead chamber, because it was necessary to use gamma radiation. The authors of these works, perhaps, didn't pay attention to Miller's conclusions of 1933 about the bulk shields inapplicability in the ether drift experiments. The phenomena physical interpretation of the essential ether drift velocity reduction at metallic shields available was given by V.A. Atsukovsky for the rst time, having explained major ether-dynamical metal resistance of a Fermi's surface available in them [6].
The purpose of the work is the experimental hypothesis test of the ether existence in nature within an optical electromagnetic waves band | material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. It is necessary to solve the following problems for reaching this purpose. To take into account the deciencies that occurred in the experiments earlier conducted. To elaborate and apply an optical measuring method and

the metering device, which does not iterate the Michelson's schema, but being its analog in the sense of result interpretation. (Michelson's interferometer of the second order is a bit sensitive to the ether streams and too sensitive to exposures.) To execute systematic measurements in the epoch of the year corresponding to the epoch of the experiments implementation [1-3], [7-9], [10]. (The term "epoch" is borrowed from astronomy, in which the observation of dierent years performed in the months of the same name, refer to the observations of one epoch.) The results of systematic measurements should be compared to the results of the previous experiments. The positive result of the experiment can be considered as experimental hypothesis conrmation of the ether existence in nature as material medium. in tMheewaosurkrsin[4g-6m], ewtahsoadc.ceTptheedeatthemr amkoindgelt,hpereoxppoesreidment. The following eects should be observed experimentally within the original hypothesis:
The anisotropy eect | the velocity of electromagnetic waves propagation depends on radiation direction, that is stipulated by the relative movement of the solar System and the ether - the medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation.
The height eect | the velocity of wave propagation depends on the height above the Earth's surface, that is stipulated by the Earth's surface interaction with the viscous ether stream - material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation.
The space eect | the velocity of wave propagation changes its value with a period per one stellar day, that is stipulated by a space (galactic) origin of the ether drift | the medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. Thus the height (astronomical coordinate) of the Solar system movement apex will change its value with the period per one stellar day as well as for any star owing to the Earth's daily rotating. Therefore the velocity horizontal component of the ether drift and, hence, the velocity of electromagnetic wave propagation along the Earth's surface will change the values with the same period.
The hydroaerodynamic eect | the velocity of electromagnetic waves propagation depends on movement parameters of viscous gas-like ether in directing systems (for example, in tubes), that is stipulated by solids interaction with the ether stream | material medium,responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation. (As it is known, the law of 
uids and gases motions and their interaction with solids is learnt by hydroaerodynamics. This eect, apparently, should be called as the etherdynamics eect with reference to the ether dynamics. It can be seen, that "the height eect" is referred to the etherdynamic eect class. However in the work, by virtue of methodical reception distinction used for their discovery, the eects are indicated as separate).
According to the investigation purpose, the measuring method should be sensitive to these eects.

210

Yu.M. Galaev

The following model statements are used at measuring method development [4-6]: the ether is a material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation; the ether has properties of viscous gas; the metals have major etherdynamic resistance. The imagination of the hydroaerodynamic (etherdynamic) eect existence is accepted as the initial position. The method of the rst order based on known regularities of viscous gas movement in tubes [27-28] has been proposed and realized within the optical electromagnetic waves band in the work for measuring of the ether drift velocity and ether kinematic viscosity.
The method essence is in the following. Let's place a tube part into a gas stream in such a way, that the direct tube axis will be perpendicular to the stream velocity vector. In this case both opened tube ends in relation to an exterior gas stream are in identical conditions. The gas pressure drop does not occur on the tube part, and the gas inside a tube will be immobile. Then we shall turn a tube in such a way, that the velocity vector of a gas stream will be directed along the tube axis. In this case the gas speedy stream will create a pressure drop on the tube ends, under action of which there is a gas stream in a tube soon. The stabilization time of a gas stream in a tube and this stream velocity are determined by the values of gas kinematic viscosity, the geometrical tube sizes and the velocity of an exterior gas stream [27-28]. Let's mark, that the development of constant gas stream in a tube lasts a terminating interval of time. The ether is a gas-like material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation athcceoerldeicntgrotmoatghneetaicccwepatveedvehlyopcoittyherseigsa.rdItinmg etoantsh,ethoabtserver is the sum of wave velocity vectors relative to the ether and the ether velocity with regard to the observer. In this case, if an optical interferometer is created, in wouhtiscihdea obfeaamtudbreiv(eisninthsiedeetahemreetxatlleirciotur bset,reaanmd)ananotdhteor turn the interferometer in the ether drift stream, it can be expected, that in such interferometer, during a stabilization time of the ether stream in a tube, the bands oset of the interference pattern regarding to the original position of these bands on the interferometer scale should be observed. Thus the value of bands oset will be proportional to the ether exterior stream velocity, and the stabilization time | the bands return time to the original position, will be dened by the ether kinematic viscosity value. Hence, the proposed measuring method enables to meter the ether drift velocity values and the ether kinematic viscosity. The proposed measuring method is a method of the rst order, as it is not required to revert a light beam to the initial point (as, for example, in Michelson's interferometer).
Let's calculate the interferometer parameters. For the stream analysis of the gas-like ether we shall use the mathematical hydrodynamics apparatus, which is advanced in the works [27-28] at the problem solving,

connected with the stream of viscous incompressible 
uid. The use of such solutions for gas stream analysis is true, if the following requirement is performed

0:5Ma2 << 1;

(2)

wagvahesersraoegueMngdaavse=sltorcweiatpmya.csvAe1tloticshietayreMoqnauciarhet'msubenenutmseimbcteipro;lnem;wcpesantiaissttiahonne

(2), it is possible to neglect the gas pressure eects and

consider the gas stream as the stream of incompressible


uid. On data of the experimental works [1-3], [7-9] and

[10], the ether drift velocity W near the Earth's sur-

face does not exceed the value W  104 m/sec. In the

work [6] the sound velocity in the ether is estimated by

tlihgehtvavleuloeccitsy. E1v0e2n1 receive, that Ma 

m/sec, that essentially exceeds the

if to 3:3

consider, that 10 5. Hence,

tchse=recq,uwireemsheanltl

(2) is performed, the stream of a gas-like ether can be

considered as a stream of viscous incompressible 
uid

and the use of the hydrodynamics corresponding math-

ematical apparatus is true for ether stream analysis.

Laminar and turbulent 
uid streams are distin-

guished in hydrodynamics. The laminar 
uid stream

exists, if the Reynolds number Re, drawn up for a

stream, 28]

does

not

exceed

some

extreme

value

Rec

[27-

Re < Rec:

(3)

The Reynolds number for a round cylindrical tube is dened by the following expression

Re = 2apwpa 1;

(4)

where matic


aupidis

the interior viscosity; 

tube radius; v =  1 is kineis the dynamic viscosity;  is

the 
uid density. Depending on the exterior stream na-

ture and the requirements of 
uid in
ux into a tube,

the
Re

values < 2:3

1R03ecthaere
uwiidthsitnreaRmec

 2:3 103 : : :104. in a tube exists only

At as

laminar and does not depend on an extent of an exterior

stream turbulence. The following features are peculiar

for a steady laminar 
uid stream in a round cylindrical

tube. The particle movement pathways are rectilinear.

The maximal 
uid stream velocity along the tube axis and is equal to

wpmax

takes

place

wpmax = 0:25 pa2p 1lp 1;

(5)

where p is the pressure drop on a tube part with the length lp;

p = 0; 25
plpap 1wp2a;

(6)

eTm
qpheueaiasnmlt

hapuexii=dcmov6aee4llsRoctcireeeitnay1tmaotfveaalorlaocimutnyidnwatrpumrbeaegxirmeisseitswotaficn
ecuemi,dowsrtherietcahhmains.

wpmax = 2wpa:

(7)

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

211

Figure 1: A tube in a gas stream

The stream velocity distribution on a tube section is called as Puazeyl's parabola and looks like

wp (r) = wpmax 1 r2ap 2 ;

(8)

where r is the coordinate along the tube radius.

The laminar stream transferring into a turbulent

one takes place not 
uently, but by jumps. At transfer-

ring through the extreme value of a Reynold's number

the tube resistance coecient increases by jump, and

then slowly reduces. The following features are peculiar

for a steady stream of viscous liquid in a round cylindri-

cal tube of turbulent stream. The pathways of particle

movement have scattered nature. The resistance coe-

cient of a round tube velocity distribution

iosneqauatul b
ep

= 0:3164Re 0:25. section is almost

The uni-

form with their sharp reduction up to zero point in a

thin layer near the wall. The maximal velocity increase

above the mean order value is about 10-20 % [27-28]

wpmax  (1:1 : : :1:2) wpa:

(9)

It will be shown below, that in the experiment re-

qwueirsehmalelnbtes,raesstraicrtuelde,bRyeth>e Resetcim, tahteiorenfso,rpeeirnfotrhmeewdofrokr

the ether turbulent stream.

Let's consider the method operating principle. In

the Fig. 1 the part of a cylindrical round metallic tube

with the drift), is

length shown

lp

,

which

is

in

the

ether

stream

(ether

The ether stream is shown in the gure as slant-

ing thin lines with arrows, that indicate the direction

of its movement. The tube longitudinal axis is locat-

ed horizontally and along with the ether drift velocity

vector is in a vertical plain, which represents the gure

plain. The tube walls have major ether-dynamic resis-

tance and the ether stream acting from the tube sur-

face side area, the ether inside a tube does not move.

The ether velocity stream stipulated by the horizontal

vetehloecritsytrceoammpionnaenttuobfe,thweheicthhegrodersifwtitWhht,hecrmeaetaesn tvhee-

ltohceitryouwtpinag.

It can be spoken, that the metallic system for the ether stream. Let's

tube turn

is a

tube in a horizontal plain in such a way, that its lon-

gitudinal axis will take up a position perpendicular to

the plain of the Fig. 1 or, that is similar | perpen-

dicular to the velocity vector of the ether drift. In this

position both opened ends of a tube will be in identical

conditions regarding to the ether stream, the pressure

dierential p does not occur and according to (5) the

ether stream velocity in a tube is equal to a zero point.

Apotstithieonm. oTmheenthot0rizwoentsahlacllomtuprnonaenttuboef

into the initial the ether drift

veneldosc,ituyndWerh

will create a pressure drop operation of which the ether

p on the tube stream will be

developed in a tube. In the work [28] the problem about

setting into motion of viscous incompressible 
uid being

in a round cylindrical tube under operating of the sud-

denly appended constant pressure drop p is solved.

Let's reduce the formula of the velocity distribution of


uid stream in a tube


wp (r; t) = wpmax 1

r2 a2p

8

X 1 k=1

J0

k3

k
J1

rap
( k

1
)


exp

a2pk2t# ;

(10)

w0o;rhdeJerr0es;.tJTi1shteahreertsBitmetsews;eol'sskumfiusmntchatenioednqssuianotfsioqtnuhaerroezoetbrsoraJca0kn(edtsk)erxs=t-

press steady (at t ! 1) laminar stream of 
uid and

correspond the mentioned above \Puazeyl's parabola"

(8). So at a turbulent 
uid stream, according to (9),

the velocity distribution on a tube section is almost uni-

form, we shall consider, that the 
uid stream velocity

is of

ethque arlouwnpda

on the tube at

whole tube a turbulent

section (the value 
uid stream should

b
pe

uwsaeldl laatyetrh.eIvnaltuheisccaalcsueltahteioenxpwrpeas)sieoxnc(e1p0t)tahte

thin nearr = 0 will

be like

"
wp (t)  wpa 1

8 X 1 k 3J1 1 ( k)

k=1

exp  k2ap 2t :

(11)

The expression (11) describes the process of a 
uid

stream dening in a round tube. It follows from (11),

tohf attheatextp!res1sionth(e11v)alsuheouisldwbpe(td)iv!idewdpain. toBoththe

parts value

of In

constant this case


uid the

tsitmreeamvarviealtoiocintyofin
auidroustnrdeatmubdeimwepna -.

sionless velocity in a Fig. 2.

wp

(t)/wpa

will

be

like,

that

is

shown

In the gure the values of dimensionless velocity

wofpt(itm)/ewaprae agrievegnivoenn tohne aanbsocirsdsianaatxeiss.axAiss,itthies svhaoluwens

above, the requirement (2) is performed and the ether

stream can be described by the laws of thick liquid mo-

tions, then we shall speak about the ether stream fur-

ther, instead of 
uid. In the Fig. 2 we'll allocate the

212

Yu.M. Galaev

Figure
tube

2:

Variation

in

time

of


uid

movement

velocity

in

a

ivsnhetlaeolrlcvictayallolinftthaiemtueetbthe0e:rc:hs:attnrdeg,aedmsufrrrionemggimw0heuicophnttothhe0i.se9t5thiemwrepsatir.netWaemre-

val as the dynamic one. We shall call the ether stream

regime at t > Let's skip

atdliagshtthbeeasmteaadlyonsgtrtehaemturebgeimaxe.is.

It

can

be written down, that the phase of a light wave on a cut

with the length lp will vary on value j, which is equal.

' = 2 f lp V 1;

(12)

where f is the electromagnetic wave frequency; V is

the light velocity in a tube. According to the original

hypothesis the ether is a medium, responsible for elec-

tromagnetic waves propagation. This implies, that if in

avetluobcietywoitfhwthhicehlecnhgatnhgelps

there is in time,

the ether stream, the so the phase of a light

wave measured on the tube output, should change in

time according to variation in time of the ether stream

velocity wp (t). Then the expression (12) will be like

' (t) = 2 f lp [c wp (t)] 1 ;

(13)

where c is the light velocity in a xed ether, in vacuum.

In the expression (13) the sign "+" is used, when the

direction of the light propagation coincides with the

ether stream direction in a tube, and the sign "-" is

used, when these directions are opposite.

In the work the optical interferometer is applied for

measuring value ' (t). Rozhdestvensky's interferome-

ter schema is taken [29] as the basis, which is supple-

mented in such a way, that the light beam drove along

the empty metallic tube axis in one of the shoulders.

The interferometer schema and its basic clusters are

shown in the Fig. 3.

1 | illuminator; 2 | a metallic tube part; 3 |

ettrhyaeenfrssacphgaemrmeenant.tlTawmhiteihnbaaesa;smcMalc1eo;,uPMrs1e2,

P|2 m|irr
oartspaareraslhleolwsnemoinis shown with thick lines

and arrows. The light beam in a tube pass along the

axis and is indicated with a broken line in the gure.

The tube length is lp  P1M1. The clusters P1, M1

Figure 3: The schema of an optical interferometer

aMTttPishhn1nhee2dM'emtma2Pa.rcine2orTgrn,mohllseMprieosd.pui2enliInra1ntetaie,denarrd,esvic2aoltmMalhpsasoep1srauioe,cRrnsaeMittotlehzeP2cdeha1edastMaaweenncsd1hiogtfvl=ttoebehhstynheeMsbetekbewr2tyetPhoo'wase2nmerp=eiaadsnnrrtdslaie1nmfrlrto,lofeaeiprMlnrlmlploy
i1,amaunPnlegMse2gntolcte1=enoer,.

operating is reduced to the following. The light beam

with the wave length  is divided

which after are parallel

rwe
itehctaiopnhfarsoemdiMe1reanncde

PM[2192]inatnodtpwaossbineagmPs2,

 = 4 l1 1 (cos i1 cos i2) :

(14)

eterTahdejuasntgmleesnti1s,o

it2haatretheestianbtleirsfheerdenacte

the interferompattern should

be observed. (The adjustment clusters are not shown

on the schema symbolically). In a tuned interferometer

the value is  = const. In the right part of the Fig. 3

the family of arrows means the stream direction of the

ether drift horizontal component velocity. This stream

veteelor cciltuystiseresqounalatohoWrizho.ntIaf ltrootaartreadngbeatchkegrionutnerdf,ersoumch-

instrument can be turned in the ether stream. The ro-

tation axis is perpendicular to the gure plains and is

indicated In the

aisntAerif.erometer

(Fig.

3)

the

band

position

of

an interference pattern regarding to the eyefragment

scale 3 is dened by the phase dierence of the light

bPtoe1waMma1rsdP,s2wt.hheiIcnlhigathhrteepdFriositpgr.aibg3auttiteohdneodneitrthehceetriposanttrahelasomnPg1iMtshd2ePibr2eecaatmnedds

Pw1rMite2

,doMw1nPe2x.pIrnestshioisn

case, according to (13), we for the phase dierence

shall ' (t)

between the beams P1M2P2 and P1M1P2.

'

(t)

=

2

f


c

P1M2
wp (t)

+

M2P2 c



 P1 M1 c

+

M1P2 c Wh



+

;

(15)

where  is constant, the value of which is dened by the expression (14). Let's simplify the expression (15).

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

213

For this purpose we shall introduce the identications

accepted earlier. Allowing, that the beam phase dif-

fteerrefenrcoemMet2ePr 2oraienndtaPti1oMn 1regdaoredsinngottodetpheenedthoenr

the instream

direction and is equal to zero point, the expression for

the value ' (t) will be like


' (t) = 2 f lp c

1 wp (t)

c

1
Wh



+

:

(16)

The rst member of the expression (16) describes

tsiepshttrrheeteeshabsremieoeabxnmvteeeianplrmoihocsarqiptsusyehtaarviresnaeearmaibavrtataviurcoeibknaloeettcPiosiw1tnyMtpo(MW2ta)d1h.Pce.opT2Lmehnedmetde'piussneenrcgneaoddolnuinddncetgenmhoteoehmnemetihtbnehexaeerr--

tor
fc

a1n=d,all1owwiengsh, tahllartecce2ive

Wh

wp

(t)

cwp (t)

cWh ,

'

(t)



2 lp


 wp

(t)
c

Wh  + :

(17)

It follows from the expression (17), that the dier-

ePssttn1rrcMeeeLaa1mmeinPt'2svtWheiclehsoo.cnppishtriyaodspeienor rattih'oteun(bati)nlettbeworepfteaw(rteod)eminaenebtrdeeerantmhtoieapsleePrtoah1ftMeirtnh2geePx2tienetarhinioetdrrs

steady regime, at t ! 1. According to the expression

(11) and Fig. ed, that owing

2towthpe(ts)mt!a1ll

v!aluwepoaf

it can be the ether

suspectdynamic

viscosity (celestial bodies move in the ether) the ether

steady stream velocity in a tube regarding to the small

length will not dier essentially from the ether exterior

stream velocity and it is possible to write down, that

wpops(itt)iot!n1in=thwe pwaorkWishd.et(eTrhmeinceodrreecxtpneersismoefnttahlilsysaunpd-

shown below.) In this case in the expression (17) the

fraction numerator in square brackets is equal to zero

point, and this expression will be

' (t)t!1  :

(18)

Hence, in the steady regime the interferometer op-

erating with a metallic tube does not dier from the

Rozhdestvensky's interferometer operating. In both in-

terferometers the bands position of an interference pat-

tern will be dened by the original phase dierence .

The interferometer, with a metallic tube, in the steady

operating regime is not sensitive to the ether drift ve-

locity and can not detect the availability or absence of

the ether drift.

Let's consider a dynamic operating regime of the

interferometer. Let's unroll the interferometer (see Fig.

3) in the horizontal plain at 180. As the direction of

the light propagation has varied in relation to the ether

drift stream to the opposite one, the expression (17)

will be like

' (t)



2 lp


 Wh

wp c

(t)



+

:

(19)

According to the expression (11) and the Fig. 2, the iten0tee:rq:u:wtadliit.thyHawenpmc(eet),ta<ilnliWcahtduytbanekaemiss ipcselarncesegitiaimvteethttheoettihmineteevirnefetloreorcvmitay-l dadniisdceortvehenertitaehtlheoebfratsnhtdereseaotmhesrientesvxidateeluraieorotufsbttrheeeawminpt(evtre)fl.eorceWinticeeessphWaatlh-l tern regarding to their position in the interferometer steady work regime as follows. Let's take a dierential of the expressions (19), (18) and divide both parts of the found expression into 2, we shall receive

' (t)

'
2

(t)t!1

=

lp 

 Wh

wp c

(t)



:

(20)

The expression left-hand part (20) is equal to the required interference pattern oset, which is expressed by the number of electromagnetic wave periods. With reference to the visually observed interference pattern the expression (20) describes the value variation in time of visible bands oset of this pattern regarding to their original position | D (t). The visible bandwidth value of an interference pattern can be the oset measurement unit. Taking into consideration, that the ether stream in a tube can have the direction opposite to the selected on the Fig. 3, generally it is possible to receive

D (t) =

lp  Wh 

wp c

(t)



:

(21)

In the expression (21) the sign "+" is used, when the light propagation direction coincides with the ether stream direction in the interferometer dynamic regime in a tube, and the sign "-" is used, when these directions are opposite. According to the expression (11) and the Fatphaitagtutt.bea2retnaitstahcaewcniepnpi(sntttss0at)nta=htnett00mt.0taTh=xehim0ebnaatnlhfdrveosamelotuhe(se2eer1tqs)uotwrafelaeantmsohinavtleellrorfececirteeyinvciene,

D (t0) =

lp 

Wh c

;

(22)

and in the steady regime, when the ether velocity in a

tube is equal to garding to their

owripgi(nt)atl!p1ositioWnhis,

the bands oset reequal 0. The depen-

dence view D (t) can be obtained with the dependence

wdipv(idt)e/(w2p1a),iwnthoic(h22i)s,swheowshnailnl

the Fig. receive

2.

Really,

let's

D (t) D (t0)

=

1

wp (t)
Wh

:

(23)

=aosbtwDaApialn(lteo)dw/DiiWnng(hsttu0ht)chehesaue1pxwppaowryes,pistsi(isitoo)nsn/hwmo(pw2aa3nd.)eiTcnaahbnteohvdbeeee,Fptwiehgnra.idtt4etwnencpe(dtvo)itwe!wn1 In the expression (22) the measured value D is pro-
portional to the rst extent of the ether drift velocity ratio to the light velocity, that characterizes the reviewed

214

Yu.M. Galaev

Figure 4:
oset in a

dVyanraimatiiconinitnertfeimroemoefteinr toeprfeerraetninceg

preagtitmeren

bands

method as the rst order method. It follows from the

expression (22) and the Fig. 4, that if at the moment of

ttiomteheti0r

to measure the bands oset value D regarding original position on the interferometer eyefrag-

ment scale, it is possible to determine the ether drift

velocity horizontal component Wh which is equal to

Wh = D (t0) clp 1;

(24)

The direction of the interference pattern bands o-

set, regarding to their original position, will be dened

by the ether exterior stream direction.

The data of the interferometer tube sizes are nec-

essary for the proposed measuring method realization.

The expression for the tube interior radius calcula-

tpiaorntsaopf

can the

be obtained as expression (11)

at
wp

the moment of (t)/wpa = 0:95,

twime sehatdll

follows. Let's divide both o(sneewtphaeanFdig,.all2o)wtihneg,rtahtaiot write down as

1 8 X 1 k 3J1 1 ( k) exp  k2ap 2td =
k=1

= 0:95:

(25)

If to be conned by the estimation accuracy no

worse than 7 %, so the series in the expression (25) can

be exchanged by its rst member. Let's substitute in

the (25) the information

numerical values we shall give these

kvaalnudes:J1

J1 ( 1) = 0:5191), we shall receive

(
1

k=)

(for the 2:4048;

ap  1:37 (td)1=2 :

(26)

The expression (26) allows to calculate such the in-

terferometer design parameter as the tube radius Atimt cea,lwcuhliacthioins,rethqeuivraedlufeotrdimispsleelmecetnetdatcioomnionfgvfirsoumal

tahpe. (or

tool) readout of bands oset value D. The data of

the ether kinematic viscosity value v will be reviewed

bpreelosswio. nT(h2e4)t,uobfewlhenicghthwelpshcaalnl

be found receive

with

the

ex-

lp  Dmin (t0) cWhm1in;

(27)

winhteerrfeerDenmcein

p(ta0t)teirsn,bawnhdischocsaent

minimum value of an be digitized with the

selected value of

etyheefreatghmerendtriaftndhoscraizloe;ntWalhcmoimn pisontheentmvienliomciutmy,

which should be measured by the interferometer (the

interferometer sensitiveness).

The ether kinematic viscosity. The data of the

ether kinematic viscosity value v are necessary for the

measuring method realization. Let's estimate the value

v, relying on the following. In the work [5] the photon

formation mechanism is represented, as the oscillating

result of excited atom electronic shell in the ether and

the Karman's vortex track as hydromechanical photon

model is proposed. In other words the photon forma-

tion is stipulated by the ether stream turbulent regime

of the excited atom streamlining by the ether, oscillat-

ing in the ether. The turbulent pulsation propagation

in the ether is perceived by the observer as the light

emission. In the work [28] it is shown, that the exis-

tence of pulsation movement is possible in 
uid volume,

if the Reynold's number is not lower than some extreme

value equal to

Recr = wd 1;

(28)

where w is 
uid movement velocity; d is the charac-

teristic size of a streamlined body. In the work [28] it

is obtained, problem the

tvhaalutesRewcr,


d,

425. v are

With reference to our accordingly: the ether

movement velocity, atom diameter, the ether kinematic

viscosity. From the expression (28) we shall nd

  wdRecr1:

(29)

We shall call the obtained ether kinematic viscosity

value as the calculated ether kinematic viscosity value

vvcel.ocLiteyt'swcawlceulsahtaellthaeccveapltuethvec

. As oset

the ether velocity

stream of elec-

tronic atom shells in the immobile ether at a photon

emission. Let's consider, that this velocity does not ex-

ceed the light velocity w  c. The diameter of atoms,

as it is known, has the value order d  10 10 m. In

this case with the (29) we shall receive

c  7:06 10 5 m2sec 1:

(30)

The performed estimation has shown, that the ether kinematic viscosity calculated value corresponds to the work imaginations [6] about the ether as gas-like medium with real gas properties. So, the kinematic viscosity values of twelve gases, spread in nature, are within 7 10 6 m2sec 1 (carbon dioxide) up to 1:06 10 4 m2sec 1 (helium).

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

215

Figure 5: The interferometer structure

Optical interferometer. The calculated ether

kinematic viscosity value allows to calculate the inter-

ferometer parameters. With the expression (26) we

shall determine the posed to be equal

tube radius. 1 second, we

If the shall

rveacleuievet,d

is supthat at

the interferometer creation it is necessary to apply the

tdImfue/bttesoeermcwsuaiintpnhepdottahshpeeepttlihuynebtteehvriealoellrnuiggershtahtdDisluopmsuiwrnacipet=hwti0ht0:he0:05te5,hxepWmrwe.hsamsvWiieonnele=(sn2hg7a2t)lh0l.

 = 6:5 10 7 m, so the required tube length is equal

to lp  0:49 m.

The optical interferometer was manufactured for

conducting measurements. Schematic gure of the de-

vice (the top view) is shown in the Fig. 5.

In the Fig. 5 the identications of the basic clusters

are kept, which were introduced at viewing the inter-

ferometer schema (Fig. 3). 4,5 | the interferometer

adjustment clusters; 6,7 | racks for xing 
at-parallel

semi-transmitting laminas and mirrors; 8 | interfer-

ometer frame; 9 | power supply accumulators of the

illuminator; 10 | the illuminator switch; 11 | the eye-

fragment xing cluster; 12 | heat-insulating housing

are shown additionally. The frame 8 is manufactured

of a steel prole with | like section. The wall thick-

ness is 0.007 m. The prole height is 0.02 m. The frame

length is 0.7 m, the width is 0.1 m. The interferometer

clusters are xed on a 
at frame surface. The racks 6,

7 are manufactured of rectangular copper tubes with

interior section 0.01 m 0.023 m. The light beams

pass inside these tubes. The interval between beams is

Ppi(nIo1naMisn,tt2hsienaPnmt1dh,aeMnPpu21ofaPitnch2tteusitr
eMaidst1eip,nqatuMreaar2llflee0r|lo.1sm2emmemtiier-.rrtorOtarhsnnesamrr
aeicatkttisnin,psgtaianrllaaltlemhldee-.l

glasses with the thickness 0.007 m were used as semi-

transparent laminas). The laminas, mirrors and clus-

ters of their xing in the Fig. 5 are not shown symboli-

cally. Each of the clusters 4,5 allows to change the racks

position in two orthogonal related plains. The tube 2

is steel with the interior radius ap = 0:0105 m. The

tube length is xing on 5 are

lnpo=t

s0h:o4w8nmsy. mTbhoeliccalullsyt.erTs hoef

the tube semicon-

ductor laser with the wave length   6:5 10 7 m was

applied as the illuminator. The optical paths in the

interferometer are located in a horizontal plain. The

interferometer was located on a rotated material table,

which was manufactured of an organic glass with the

thickness 0.02 m. The heat-insulating gasket was put

between the frame and material table . The interfer-

ometer was closed by a common housing of six layers of

a soft heat-insulating material. The thickness of such

coating was about 0.025 m. In the Fig. 5 the housing

perimeter is shown. The housing background was the

box of rectangular section with the interior sizes: width

bTch=e

0:22 box

m, was

hmeiagnhutfahcctu=re0d:1o1f

ma ,calerndgbtoharldc

= 0:8 with

m. the

thickness 0.007 m. In the box the face wall on the

eyefragment part was absent. This opening was closed

with a common soft housing. The interferometer ro-

tating was ensured with the end thrust bearing of the

diameter 0.075 m. The bearing box is located between

the material table and support. The support is provid-

ed with the units for the interferometer installation in

a horizontal position.

The interferometer test. In the manufactured

interferometer the minimum bands oset of an interfer-

ence pattern, which could be visually digitized, meant

DmTinh=e d0e:v0i5c.e stiness was tested by two methods. Ac-

cording to the rst method the instrument frame was

mounted on a horizontal surface. The interferometer for

one edge of a frame was hoisted in such a way, that the

frame lean angles to the surface plain reached  20.

In this position the interference patterns oset frame,

stipulated by elastic deformations of the instrument,

did not exceed 0.3 bands (D = 0:3). According to the

second method the instrument stiness was tested in a

working position. The frame lean angles up to 10 were

created by the material table tilt. In this case the bands

noticeable drift was not observed. The stability of an

interference pattern to impulsive loads was tested. The

light shocks on the interferometer frame, material ta-

ble and support caused short-lived interference pattern

wince at the moments of such strikes. Thus the inter-

ference pattern was not destroyed. The bands saved an

original position after termination of impulsive loads.

The second stage of tests was performed on the ter-

rain selected for experimental investigations. In windy

weather the interference pattern was stable. The ob-

server moving in an immediate proximity from the

interferometer installation site, the movement of the

pedestrians and cars in 20 meters from the instrument

installation site did not cause the noticeable oset or

bands shivering. The short-lived bands shivering at cars

movement was marked on one of two selected points,

which was in seven meters from a ground road. Thus

the interference pattern was observed, and the bands

216

Yu.M. Galaev

did not change the position. (The transport movement

in this terrain is insignicant | on the average 3-4

automobiles per a day.)

The interferometer heat tests were held in summer.

The device was mounted on the open site. The various

device orientation on an azimuth was set in cloudless

weather conditions. In a xed position the instrument

was heated by solar radiation. In these conditions with-

in 30 minutes the bands oset did not exceed the value

D = 0:35 ( 1/100 bands for a minute). In cloudy

weather and at night the interference pattern saved an

invariable position within 2-3 hours.

The measuring method sensitiveness to the ether

drift required eects was tested at the test nal stage.

The method of interferometer application was the fol-

lowing. The instrument was mounted in a horizontal

position in such a way, that its direct axis coincided

with a meridian line, and the illuminator was turned to

the north. In such initial position, in the interferome-

ter steady work, the observer registered the bands orig-

inal position of an interference pattern regarding to the

eyefragment scale. The value D = 0 was given to the

bands original position. Then the observer changed the

position | took a seat at the illuminator. The inter-

ferometer turned in 180. The rotational displacement

was performed within three seconds. At rotational dis-

placement, as it was reviewed above, the ether stream in

a tube was interrupted. The interferometer transferred

into a dynamic operating regime, which is described by

the expression (11). In this interferometer position the

maximal value of bands oset, the bands release time

to their original position was registered. The interfer-

ometer transferred into a steady regime, and turned

into the initial position. At this stage of tests it was

established, that after the dynamic regime termination

the bands noticeable oset of an interference pattern

regarding to their original position was not observed,

i.e. bands expression

o(21se)titvamlueeanDs,(tth)at!t 1theet0h.eAr sctcroeradmingvetlooctihtye

along the tube axis at t ! 1 diered a bit from the

ether exterior stream velocity, that the value D was be-

hind the interferometer threshold. It can be explained

by small resistance of the interferometer tube to the

ether stream movement inside this tube. Let's consider

in this case, that

wp (t)t!1 = wpa  Wh:

(31)

This experimental result was used above at the pro-

portion deduction (18).

At procedure implementation, described above, it

was marked, that at the whole time course of value D

variations corresponded to variations, which are shown

in the Fig. 4 that did not contradict the original imag-

inations about the interferometer work. The measured

duration of a dynamic regime meant The values ambiguity td is stipulated,

tdrst

10 : : : of all,

13sec. by the

Figure 6: Observed variation in time of the interference
pinagttreergnimbeands oset in the interferometer dynamic operat-

diculties, connected with small values visual readout

of the value D, slowly changing, at the dynamic regime

eDnd(t,)i,.ec.reaattetd!onttdh.eIdnatthaevFisiuga.l

6 the dependence view observations, is shown.

However, as it can be seen in the Fig. 6, on the

original site by the extent about 1 second the depen-

dence time course D course qualitatively.

(t) diered from After the device

an expected time rotation in 180,

atiphtaettehindei,tmiaaclocmporoedsniittnigoonft,otii.m(e2.e2)tD0a,(ntdt0h)et=hbea0Fnidigns.stset4ai,ldl tohocfecauvnpatilieucde-

Dwi(tth0i)n There

wt=heeremtisamuxpe.ptomSsiitnioce1nsstehocfercemearcothameindenmttheetc0hm,aantxhiciemalvasaltlvrueaeslsueDes.

itnio
nueinnci1n8g0atotrhoethinetrerrfeearsoomnse,tecrobnrnaekcitnedg,affoterreixtasmroptlae-,

with air movement inside a heat-insulating housing. In

this connection dierent methods of the interferome-

ter starting into movement and its braking were test-

ed. The tests have shown, that the observed feature

of the interferometer work could not be explained by

the suppositions made. The systematic round-the-clock

tests have shown the following. The daily variations of

the value D corresponded the measured ones in the experiment [1-3] to the ether drift velocity variations

within a day. (In the experiment [1-3] round-the-clock

measurements were carried out continuously during 13

months, since August 1998 till August 1999. The part

of this experiment results is published in the works [1-

3]. The measurement results within radio waves band

hetahveer sdhroiwftn,hothriaztontthaelrecoims paornaetnhterveslmocailtlyvadluureinogf tthhee

part of a day. The same eects were marked at the

optical interferometer test in the work. The experi-

ence has shown, that at a separate day, on of time at the interferometer rotation on

1s8u0ch

periods the no-

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

217

ticeable bands oset of an interference pattern was not observed. Hence, the detected features in dependence

D (t) (Fig. 6) could not be caused by the interferome-

ter mechanical strains or air movements inside the in-

terferometer heat-insulating housing, and are stipulat-

ed by the exterior reasons. Such time periods, during

wthheicinhteDrfe(trmom) ete0r

were used starting in

for improvement ways of rotation and its stopping.

These ways were used then as standard procedures at systematic measurement conducting.

Analysis of the interferometer test results.
The detected regularity in the observed bands oset has required its physical interpretation. The possible in
uencing analysis of the interferometer structural elements on the ether streams has shown, that the ob-

served dependence features D (t) can be qualitatively and quantitatively described within the following sup-

position. Let allow, that an exterior heat-insulating dielectric housing of the interferometer (the point 12 in the Fig. 5) forms the additional directing system for the

ether stream drift, besides a metallic tube. In this case

the exterior in relation to a metallic tube of the ether

stream is the ether movement in a dielectric housing.

If to consider the interferometer housing as the routing

system, it is necessary to consider, that, since the mo-

mpreonctests0

in it, as well as in a of the ether stream

metallic dening

tube, the dynamic will be developed.

It gives the basis to write down the expression (21) as

follows

D (t) =

lp 

 Wc

(t)

c

wp

(t) ;

(32)

wltohhceietrvyeariWniatctii(omtn)eoiifsntththheeeevtianhrteierartfsietorrnoemaomefttevhreelhoeoctiuthsyeinrigns;ttrwiemapme(ti)nveias-

metallic tube.

The housing basis was a cardboard box of rectangu-

lar section. Let's consider a problem about setting the

ether into motion, resting in a rectangular tube. For

this purpose let's use the comparative method, spread

in hydrodynamics, of 
uid stream in a tube of a com-

pound prole with 
uid stream in the tube of round

section, "equivalent" on resistance, at which so-called

"hydraulic" radius

normal section cepted [27] for

tGhips

atho

equal to an the section

radius

area ratio perimeter

of a tube Np is ac-

ah = GpNp 1:

(33)

Such a way enables to use the mathematical appa-

ratus developed at stream analysis in round tubes. As

before we shall be limited to estimations, performed for

the ether turbulent stream. In this case the dependence

Wthce

(t) can be calculated with the expression similar to expression (11) in which as the round tube radius

atupbweeashhall use the "hydraulic" radius of a rectangular

"
Wc (t)  wpac 1

8 X 1 k 3J1 1 ( k)

k=1

exp  k2ah 2t ;

(34)

where bulent

wstpraecamis

a mean velocity of the ether steady turin the interferometer dielectric housing.

As before, at considering the expression (17), and tak-

ing into account the interferometer test results (31), it is

possible to consider, essentially from the and it is possible to

that the value ether exterior write down

swtrpeaacmdoveesloncoittydiWehr

Wc (t)t!1 = wpac  Wh:

(35)

terioLreto'svecraallcludlaimteetnhseiovnasluweeraeh

. Above, given at

the the

housing ininterferom-

ehatncedr=FNsrt0orp:mu1,1cwtthumiterhe.etTxdhpehesrece(nrs3i,s3piho)tainwovne(in:2sg6hw)adiildetlttrehiesrcmpbeciiovns=eesdiba0lht:eh2=2etov0ma:s0el,u3ehe,6es7tihgGmhaptt.

twtrhhaideellivudbasuelruodafeettitohndneewdionibfltlyetbrhtfeheeerdionetmutebneretefedeorrfobhlmyaoruetghtseeienrrvgrdaayaldunhieuasmo.fiAc"hsryeadghrima>uelaictp"d,

td  0:53a2h 1:

(36)

From the expression (36) it follows, that, having the

measured kinematic

vvailsuceossittdy, viat liusepossible

to

determine

the

ether

  0:53a2htd 1:

(37)

The kinematic viscosity value, determined in such

a way, we shall call as the ether kinematic viscosity

masehce,a=swu0er:e0sd3h6av7lallmureecaevnicvd.eLtheet'ms seuabssutrietdutveailnuteo

(37) td =

the (10

values : : :13)

e  (5:5 : : :7:1) 10 5 m2sec 1:

(38)

The kinematic viscosity as the function mean value sec is equal to

vm=eafn(vtda)luwe ivtheain,

calculated (10 : : :13)

ea = 6:24 10 5 m2sec 1:

(39)

Comparing (30), (38) and (39) we shall mark, that on the value order the ether kinematic viscosity values, calcTulhaeteodppaonrdtumneitaysuorfedth,ecopirnocbidleemvcsoluvtieon avbeaou. t the ether viscosity measuring is of particular interest, as the experimental data about the ether viscosity and the ether viscosity measuring methods miss in literature till nowadays.

218

Yu.M. Galaev

Figure 7: Variation in time of the interference pattern
bands oset (calculation)

Let's write down the expression for the value D (t). For this purpose we shall substitute the expressions (11) ainngdly(3a4n)di,na(l3lo2w) finorgtthheevparloupesorwtipo(nts) (a3n1d),W(3c5()t,)waeccsohradl-l receive

D (t) 

8lpWh X 1
c k=1

k 3J1 1 (

k)

exp  k2ap 2t exp  k2ah 2t : (40)

In the Fig. 7 in a normalized view the dependence

calculation result D (t), performed with the expression

(40) is given. At calculations the terms number of a

svveairslicueoesssiktoyf=tihs4e,vitnchtee=rcfae7lrcouml1a0etteed5rmvda2elssuiegecnofp1 taharaenmdetehttheerreskfaionrleelomuwsaeitndigc:

a6:p5=100:0710m5. m; ah = 0:0367 m; lp = 0:48 m;  =

From the Fig. 7 it follows, that on time expira-

ttic0ioonopftetmrhaetinb0ge:g8ri2engnsiiemncg,e,wttihhmiecehboaifsntddhisgeiotinizsteeedtrffemrrooammxiemttheaerl

moment dynamvalue of

the interference pattern (value D) should be observed.

The anticipated duration of the interferometer dynamic

oexpperreastsiniognr(e4g0im) feormsaptetceirfsyintdg

 10:3 sec. Let's use the the observed value exper-

itmuteentinal(ly40t)mthe1mseeacs.uFreodr tvhailsuepuorfptohsee ewtheesrhaklilnseumbasttiic-

vtcmoisnctorsaid0ty:i9c,t3vteshaeec=.exH6p:e2enr4iceen,1c0tehre5esmcua2lltcsseu,clawt1iho,incwhereassruhelatslslhordewocnenivoinet

the Fig. 6.

The interferometer test results analysis, the ether

kinematic viscosity values, calculated and measured,

give the basis to consider, that the ether stream proper-

ties are close to the stream properties of known gases at

their interaction with solids | to pass aside obstacles

and go in directing systems. It can be suspected, that

solids (dielectrics, metals etc.) at interaction with the

ether stream render major ether-dynamic resistance. It

claries the interferometer test results, that the tube

made of dielectric can execute the same directing sys-

tem role for the ether, as the tube made of metal. The

ether stream property, i.e. to pass aside obstacles, could

cause unsuccessful attempts to detect the ether drift

with the devices placed in metallic chambers [17-20,

23-26].

For value denition of the ether drift horizontal

coomseptomneenatsuvreeldocvitayluWe ohf

it is possible to an interference

use the pattern

bands at the

mexopmreesnsitonof(t4i0m)ewtemsh, awllhreenceDive(tm) = max. From the

Wh  D (tm) c (8lpX 1 k 3J1 1 ( k)
k=1

exp  k2ap 2tm exp  k2ah 2tm 1: (41)

Let's substitute in (41) the measured values of the

etohtfhetehrveakluiinneteemtrmfaetrio=cmve1itsecrsoescait,nydthvceeaaldc=eusliag6tn:i2o4npapr1aa0rma5emtmeerts2esrevca(tlhu1ee,

tmcear;smelpsthn=eumm0b:e4ea8rsuomfre;adsevra=ileuse)6::5oafpt1h=0e07e:0tmh1e0;r5

km=; a4h

= .

I0n:0t3h6i7s

drift horizontal

component velocity, will be dened as follows

Wh  525D (tm) :

(42)

Let's calculate the minimal value of the ether drift

vuefalocctiutryedWihnmteinrf,erwohmicehtecra,ni.be.e

measured we shall

with the mandetermine the

instrument sensitiveness. In the part \the interferom-

eter test" which can

is marked, that the minimum be digitized with the selected

veayleuferaDgmmeinnt,

awnedsLhsecatal'lslerdeDectemeivrimne i=Wneh0m:t0hi5ne.

Then with the expression (42) = 26:25 m/sec. ether stream regime in the in-

tweirtfhertohmeeetxerprteusbsieosna(t4)Wwhe=shWalhl mcainlc.ulFaotre

this the

purpose minimal

vrcRctsahtoaaredesnlemuiiatueeibymtnseohvfaetweruptahrr=di8be=tr8utiR03efl6t:en4e0:ny2.v1tdn4e0orolA5oewl1dgccmni0cistm,o,iner5teiudsnhmiimasnWwtbg2phsheoReirtcscoeshRimbt1te2hilhmn6eeme:i2on>ero5netvlfhqyeoRmuesrir.ei/nrtcswehL.etmeeichttHeeth'tunshiebttnnerhteec(eeece3wrte,v)fhiieivtaersihertt--

ometer tubes.

The optical interferometer tests and tests results

analysis give the basis to consider, that the hydrody-

namic description of the interferometer operating prin-

ciple, reviewed above, is adequate to the imaginations

about viscous ether stream in tubes, and the manu-

factured interferometer is suitable for the ether drift

velocity and the ether kinematic viscosity measuring.

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

219

The measurement methods. The interferometer

was disposed in the country settlement at the height

( 190 m above sea level), in 13 km from Kharkov

northern suburb. The proximate height ( 200 m

above sea level) is located westward apart 1.7 km. Two

points were arranged for measurements. The distance

between them was about 15 m. On the point No 1

the interferometer was at the height 1.6 m above the

ground surface. On the point No 2 it was at the height

4.75 m. Two points available, which are located at dif-

ferent heights and are practically at the same point of

terrain, it is required for observation of the \height ef-

fect." The measurements on the points No 1 and No 2

were performed in the open air. On the point No 1 the

interferometer was in surrounding trees shadow and was

not exposed to direct solar radiation aecting within a

light day. On the point No 2 the interferometer was

mounted in an umbrella shadow. In winter time the

interferometer was transferred to Kharkov. The point

No 3 ( 30 m above the ground surface or  130 m

above sea level) was arranged in the upper level facility

of a bricky house. On the point No 1 the measurements

were carried out in August 2001, on the point No 2 in

August, September, October and November 2001, on

the point No 3 in December 2001 and in January 2002.

The measurements were carried out cyclically. One

measuring cycle lasted 25-26 hours. 2-4 cycles were

performed within one month. Each cycle contained the

following parameters. The interferometer was mounted

on a selected point, so that its rotating plain was hor-

izontal. After installation the interferometer was kept

in new heating environment within one hour (the in-

strument was stored in the facility). The measurements

were carried out at each whole hour of stellar time. One

readout of the measured value was performed under the

following schema. The interferometer longitudinal axis

was mounted along a meridian, so that its illumina-

tor was turned to the north. The further procedures

did not dier from the interferometer operating pro-

cedures, which were applied at the nal stage of the

interferometer test. After the interferometer dynamic

regime termination the observer registered the maximal

bands bands

orelseeatsevatliumeeDto(ttmhe)i,r

as the measured value. The original position was regis-

tered and metered. The interferometer returned to the

steady operating regime. The instrument turned to the

initial position. As a rule, 5-7 readouts were done dur-

ing one measuring time ( 10 minutes). The readout

mean value was accepted for the measured value D (S),

where S is the measuring stellar time.

The processing methods of the measurement

results. The measurement results processing included the following procedures: values calculations of the

ectohuerrsedorfiftthheoertizhoenrtdarlifctovmeploocniteyntwvitehloincitsyepWarhat;eastdeallialyr

day and the ether drift velocity daily course averaged

during the year epoch Wh (S); a daily course of the

ether drift velocity averaged for the whole time of the

mtioenaTsWuhrehemmfreeonamtsusiertersimemseneWatnhrev(sSaul)ult,esmweWaenr.e-sqinutarroedvuacleude

de
ecas the

measured value tables D (S) ed with the expression (42)

. The were

bvraoluugeshtWtho,tchaelcsualmate-

table for each hour of stellar day. Such numbers con-

sequence obtained for separate stellar day, describes a

dailTyhceoumrseeanWvhal(uSe)s.of the ether drift velocity and the

vdaalyuewsithWthwe efroellocwalicnuglaktneodwfnoreexapcrheshsioounrs

of the [30]

stellar

Wh (S) =  1 X  Whj (S);
j=1

8

W

(S)

=

><

>:

1 X  j=1

Whj (S)

(43)

91=2

Wh (S)

2=
;

;(44)

where whole

m eiasstuhreemvaelnutessearmieos.unTthWe hco,nobdtaeninceedindtuerrivnaglsthoef

the measured values were calculated with the known

methods explained, for example, in the work [30]. The

calculations were performed with the estimation relia-

bility equal to 0.95.

The measurement results. The measurement se-

ries results, held since August 2001 till January 2002 are

presented in the work. 2322 readouts of the measured

values have been performed during this series. The dis-

tribution of readouts amount per months of the year is

shown in the table 1

According to the research problems, we shall con-

sider this work results along with the experiment re-

sults [1-3], [7-9], [10]. These four experiments have

been performed at various points of a globe with three

dierent measuring methods: an optical interferome-

ter of the rst order (Europe, Ukraine, 2001{2002 [this

work]); a radio interferometer of the rst order, (Eu-

rope, Ukraine, 1998{1999 [1-3]); optical interferometers

of the second order (Northern America, USA, 1925{

1926 [7-9], 1929 [10]). The measuring methods action,

which are applied in the above-mentioned experiments,

based on wave propagation regularities in moving medi-

um, responsible for these waves propagation, that al-

lows to treat the experiment results in the terms of the

ether drift velocity within the original hypothesis.

The development regularities of viscous medium

streams (
uids or gases) in directing systems are used

in the work measuring method. The measured value

is proportional to a velocity dierential of the ether

viscous streams in two tubes of dierent section with-

in the original hypothesis. This dierential value is

proportional to the ether drift velocity (the rst order

method).

In the experiment measuring method [1-3] the reg-

ularities of viscous medium streams near the surface

220

Yu.M. Galaev

Table 1: Distribution of readouts amount per months of the year Month of the year August September October November December January
2001 2001 2001 2001 2001 2002 Amount of readouts 792 462 288 312 240 228

Figure 8: Variation of ether drift velocity within a day in
August epoch
partition are used. The measured value is proportional to a vertical velocity gradient in the ether drift stream near the Earth's surface within the original hypothesis. This gradient value is proportional to the ether drift velocity (the rst order method).
In the experiments [7-9] and [10] Michelson's cruciform interferometers were applied. The measured value is proportional to a velocity dierential of wave propagation in orthogonal related directions in the ether drift stream within the original hypothesis. This dierential value is proportional to the ether drift velocity (the second order method).
In the Fig. 8 the experiment results referring to August are presented. On fragments of this gure are shown accordingly: in the Fig. 8a | this work results; in the Fig. 8b | the experiment results [1-3] (the gure is published for the rst time); in the Fig. 8c | the experiment results [7-9]. ing Tohneoertdhienratderiaftxevse.locTithieesstWelhlarintikmme/sSec.inarheopuersndis-

pending on abscissa axes. Each of the Fig. 8 frag-

ments illustrate the variation of the ether drift velocity

wariethpinresaenstteedllaorndlyaybyWthh(eSa)u. thTohrse

experiment of work [10]

results as as-

certaining of the velocity maximal value, measured by

them, in relation to the movement W  6 km/sec, that

has not allowed to show this experiment results in the

Fthieg.m8eaassutrheemdenatilydadteapeanvdereangciengWrhes(uSl)ts.

In the Fig. 8 were present-

ed with the thick lines, which are obtained in each of

the experiments during August epoch (mean results).

The separate observations (measurement results during

a separate day) are shown with thin lines. The dates of

separate observations are specied on fragments. The

separate observations on fragments of the Fig. 8a, Fig.

8b are selected from the performings, which had the

date, proximate to the date of separate observation of

the Fig. 8c fragment and which during the day had

no skips during the measuring. The date discrepancy

is stipulated also by the fact that the systematic mea-

surements in the work began on August 14, 2001, and

in the experiment [1-3] | on August 11, 1998.

The positive measurement results, given in the Fig. 8, illustrate the development of anisotropy eect | the eimtheenrtds r[i7ft-9r]e,q[u1i0re] dtheeeacnt.isoIntrtohpeyweorekctanwdaisn dthisecoevxepreerdby the optical interferometer rotation, in the experiment [1-3] the opposing radio waves propagation was applied.

The similar nature of the ether drift velocity varia-

tion within a day in August epoch unite all three frag-

ments of the Fig. 8. The rst minimums in depen-

dencies results.

IWnhth(Se )waorrek

expressed (Fig. 8a)

clearly in and in the

all three mean experiment [1-

3] (Fig. 8b) temporary position of minimums is S  3

hours. In the experiment [7-9] (Fig. 8c) the temporary

position of the rst minimum is S  0:8 hour. (Such

discrepancy in the position of these minimums is about

2.2 hour, an explanation has not found yet.) The ether

drift velocity magnication is observed during conse-

quent 2-3 hours. Further the plateau sites with rather

small variations of the ether drift velocity in time are

noticed on all fragments. The greatest duration of the

plateau site was observed in the experiment [1-3] (Fig.

8b), that can be explained by arranging peculiarities of

a radio-frequency spectral line on terrain. In this ex-

periment the radio-frequency spectral line is declined

from a meridian on 45 to northeast. The variations

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

221

of the ether drift apex azimuth (as well as any star az-

imuth) occur symmetrically to a meridian line within a

stellar day. If to take the apex coordinate values into

account (according to Miller:   65, a  17:5h [9]),

the ether drift azimuth in this part of a stellar day ac-

cepts the values, which lay in the northeast direction,

i.e. in the direction close to the direction of a radio-

frequency spectral line. In this case the angle between

the ether drift azimuth and radio frequency spectral

line direction has minimum values. Accordingly at the

interval of 12-16 hours the ether drift radial compo-

nent velocity (directed along a radio-frequency spectral

line) keeps rather high value, despite of the apex height

magnication (astronomical coordinate). Such arrang-

ing peculiarities of the radio interferometer on terrain

can the

explain interval

tohf e12re-1la6tihvoeudrsepinencdoemnpceariinscorneawsiethWthh e(Ssa)maet

dependencies shown on two other fragments. In the

work (Fig.8a), according to the accepted measurement

methods, the optical interferometer was located along

a meridian. As the variations of the ether drift azimuth

within a stellar day occur symmetrically to the merid-

ian line, in this case the plateau site duration should

be less, than in the experiment [1-3] and less than in

the experiment [7-9] in which the ether drift azimuth

variation was considered by the corresponding rotation

of the interferometer.

It can be seen in the Fig. 8a (the mean result of

the work), that the sites with rather small values of

the ether drift velocity, extended in time, take place

within a day. Noticeable bands oset of an interference

pattern was not observed per a separate day on such

sites. In these cases the ether drift velocity was lower

tmh/asnect)h, ethianttewrfaesroumseedtefrorsetnhseitiinvteenrefsesro(mi.eet. er Wtehsts<,

26 the

purpose of which is given in the above mentioned part

"the interferometer test".

Systematic character of experimental investigations

of this work and the works [1-3], [7-9] has shown, that

dependencies measured in one and the same epoch of

tehtheeryedarriftWvehlo(Sci)ty,

have the variation

similar within a

character of the day. At the same

time dependencies epochs of the year

vdiiewerWfrhom(S)ea, cmheoatshuerre,dtihnatdicaenrebnet

noticed, for example, by the experiment published re-

sults [7-9]. The reasons of such seasonal variations have

not been dened yet. It can be suspected, that magne-

tosphere, at its considerable sizes and peculiar shape,

ionosphere, the known variations of their state can be

responsible for such dependence variations It can be seen in the Fig. 8, the ether

Wdrhift(Sv)e.loc-

ities, measured in each of the experiments, dier, that

can be stipulated by the arranging height dierences of

measuring systems above the Earth's surface: 1.6 m;

42 m; 1830 m (Fig. 8a, Fig. 8b, Fig. 8c accordingly).

The collection of such data illustrates the height eect

development. In the work the ether drift velocity mea-

Figure 9: Dependence of the ether drift velocity on the
height above the Earth's surface, is this work and experiment [1-3]; 2 is the experiment [7-9]; is the experiment [10]
suring have been performed at the heights 1.6 m and 4.75 m (position No. 1 and No. 2) for height dependence discovery. In the table 2 the mean values of the ether drift maximal velocity are given, which are measured in the work and in the experiments [1-3], [7-8], [10]. In these four experiments the measurements are performed at ve dierent heights: 1.6m and 4.75 m in the work; 42 m in the experiment [1-3]; 265 m and 1830 m in the experiment [7-9] (Clevelend and the observatory of Mount Wilson accordingly). In the experiment [10] the measurements were carried out also on the observatory of Mount Wilson. However, in contrast with the experiment [7-9], which was carried out in a light wooden house, the experiment [10] is performed in a fundamental building of an optical workshop of the observatory. It can be supposed, that the ether stream braking by the house walls was the reason of the ether d[1r0if]tivnecloocmitpyasrmisoanllewrivtahluteh,emexeapseurrimedenint trheesuelxtp[e7r-i9m].ent
The table 2 gives the imagination about the ether drift velocity variation in height band above the Earth's surface from 1.6 m up to 1830 m. In the gure 9 this dependence view is presented in the logarithmic scale. On the abscissa and ordinates axes the logarithmic values of ratios W/W and Z/Z were pending accordingly, where: W is the ether drift velocity at the height Z ; the values W and Z are considered equal to 1 m/sec and 1 m accordingly.

222

Yu.M. Galaev

Table 2: Dependence of the ether drift velocity on the height above the Earth's surface

The ether drift velocity (m/sec)

Height above This work The experiment [13] The experiment [79] The experiment [10]

the Earth's surface 2001-2002 1998-1999

1925-1926

1929

(meters) Optics Radio waves band

Optics

Optics

1830

{

{

10000

6000

265

{

{

3000

{

42

{

1414

{

{

4.75

435

{

{

{

1.6

205

{

{

{

It can be seen from the Fig. 9, that dierent experiment results are near one straight line and in height band from 1.6 m up to 1830 m the ether drift velocity increases with the height growth above the Earth's surface. The boundary layer has considerable thickness, that can be the consequence of the ether stream and atmosphere interaction. These data do not contradict the imaginations of the model [4-6] about the viscous ether and its stream near the Earth's surface. From the table 2, Fig. 8a and the Fig. 9 it can be seen, that the ether drift velocity is rather small near the Earth's surface, that can explain the reason of \zervoalureesu3l0tsk"mo/fsemcawnaysetxapkeernimasentthael ewthoerkrsd,riinftwanhticichiptahteed velocity. In such experiments the metering device sensitiveness was obviously poor. With the expression (1) it can be calculated, that at the ether drift velocity 2a0re0-i4n0a0ppmli/csaebcl,ethfoermmeetahsoudrsemofetnhtes,saescoinndthoirsdcearsaelmsuocsht methods sensitiveness to the ether drift velocity is low in 6 orders (!) than the sensitiveness of the rst order methods.

The ether kinematic viscosity has been measured in the work. The measurement results are explained above in the part \Result analysis of the interferometer tests," that is stipulated by the peculiarities of the experiment implementation. The measured values of the ether kinematic viscosity are in the limits vevqeaauluael ov(re5da:e5=r:c:6o::i72n:41ci)d1e01s0w5i5tmhm2tsh2esceece1th,1et.rhakTtihnaeecmcmoaretdaicinnvgvisatcloousetihtiyes value calculated above vc  7:06 10 5 m2sec 1 .

Hence, the dierences between the dependencies

Wavhai(lSab)leacnadn

the ether drift be explained by

velocity measured values the measurement method

dierences of the work and the experiments [1-3], [7-9],

[10] and dierences between arranging heights of mea-

suring systems. The results of four experiments do not

contradict each other, that illustrate the reproduced

measurement nature of the ether drift eects in various

experiments performed in dierent geographic condi-

tions with dierent measurement methods applying.

Figure 10: The mean daily course of the ether drift velocity

The measuring of ether-drift velocity and kinematic ether viscosity within optical waves band

223

According to the original hypothesis, the ether drift

vvaellouceitwyithhotrhizeonptearilocdompeproonneentsteWllhar

should change day (the space

its ef-

fect). For revealing the ether drift velocity component

with such period, the results of systematic measure-

ments were subjected to statistical processing in stellar

time scale. The results of such processing are shown

in the Fig. 10. On the fragments of the Fig. 10 the

stellar time S in hours is suspended on the abscissa

asuxseps,entdheedeothnerthderioftrdvinelaotceitayxevsa.lueThWe hveirntickaml /hsaetcchis-

es indicate the condence intervals. In the Fig. 10a

the mean daily course of the ether drift velocity with-

cinalcauslatetelldaracdcaoyrdWinhg

(S) is to the

given. This dependence is measurement results of the

work, which were performed during ve months of the

year, since September 2001 till January 2002. During

ve months the numerical value of stellar time shifts re-

garding to the solar time in 10 hours. Since September

till November the measurements were performed on the

point No2. In December and January | on the point

No3. The mean values are calculated with the expres-

sion (43). For comparison, in the Fig. 10b the mean

result is given, which was obtained in the experiment

[1-3] during year's ve months of the same name, since

September 1998 till January 1999 (Here, as contrast-

ed to the similar gure, given in the works [1-3], the

measured value is expressed in the ether drift velocity

values.) In the works [7-9], [10] such data miss, owing

to smaller on coverage of year's epochs of the measure-

ment statistics in these experiments.

Both fragments of the Fig. 10 as a whole have sim-

ilar nature of the ether drift velocity variation within

a day. The dierences in the curve shapes can be ex-

plained by viscous ether stream interaction with the

terrain relief elements, which in these dierent experi-

ments had the distinguished performances and features

of radio-frequency spectral line arranging on terrain in

the experiment [1-3]. On the fragment of the Fig. 10a

(this work), as contrasted to the result of the exper-

iment [1-3] (Fig. 10b), the ether drift velocities have

smaller values, that can be explained by the height

distinction of measuring points in these experiments.

The dependencies ly changed values

Wwihth(St)hheapveertihoedsfoerqmusaol ftpoeariosdteicllaalr-

day, that can be explained by a space (galactic) origin

of the ether drift. In the work, the observed bands o-

set direction of an interference pattern corresponded to

the ether drift northern direction at measurement im-

plementation. Hence, the results of the work do not

contradict the experiment results [1-3], [7-9], [10] and

imaginations of the works [4-6] about the northern posi-

tion of the ether drift apex, that demonstrate the repro-

duced result nature of the ether drift eects measure-

ment in dierent experiments, performed with dierent

measuring methods application.

In the work we shall be conned to qualitative comparison of the work results with the experiment data [1-3], [7-9], [10]. For conducting of quantitative comparative analysis it is necessary to specify the ether drift apex coordinate values on the celestial sphere, which for the rst time were determined in the experiment [7-9], to specify an analytical view of the ether drift velocity dependence on the height above the Earth's surface proposed in the works [1-3], to elaborate the calculation method of the terrain relief in
uence on the ether streams forming near the Earth's surface, to determine probable in
uencing of the Earth magnetosphere and ionosphere, that is the subject of separate investigations and goes out the frame of the work problems. Due to the reason this experiment results, the experiment [1-3] and the experiment [7-9] are given without any correctdiione,retnhtouexghpeirtismuesnetfsulinseqsusitaet otbhveioreussu.lt comparison of
Thus, in the work, the hypothesis experimental verication about the ether existence in nature, i.e. material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation, in the optical wave band has been performed. The estimation of the ether kinematic viscosity value has been performed. The rst order optical method for the ether drift velocity and the ether kinematic viscosity measuring has been proposed and realized. The method action is based on the development regularities of viscous liquid or gas streams in the directing systems. The signicant measurement results have been obtained statistically. The development of the ether drift required eects has been shown. The measured value of the ether kinematic viscosity on the value order has coincided with its calculated value. The velocity of optical wave propagation depends on the radiation direction and increases with height growth above the Earth's surface. The velocity of optical wave propagation changes its value with a period per one stellar day. The detected eects can be explained by the following:
| optical wave propagation medium available regarding to the Earth's movement;
| optical wave propagation medium has the viscosity, i.e. the feature proper to material mediums composed of separate particles;
| the medium stream of optical wave propagation has got a space (galactic) origin.
The work results comparison to the experiment results, executed earlier in order of the hypothesis verication about the existence of such material medium as the ether in nature, has been performed. The comparison results have shown the reproduced nature of the ether drift eect measurements in various experiments performed in dierent geographic requirements with dierent measurement methods application.
The work results can be considered as experimental hypothesis conrmation about the ether existence in nature, i.e. material medium, responsible for electromagnetic waves propagation.

224

Yu.M. Galaev

References

[1] Yu. M. Galaev. \Ether-drift eects in the experiments on radio wave propagation." Radiophysics and electronics, 2000, Vol. 5, No.1, pp. 119{132. (in Ukraine).

[2] Yu. M. Galaev. \Ether-drift. Experiment in the band of radio wave." Zhukovsky: Petit, 2000, 44 pp. (in Russia).

[3] Yu. M. Galaev. \Etheral wind in experience of millimetric radiowaves propagation." Spacetime & Substance, 2001, Vol. 2, No. 5(10), pp. 211{225, http://www.spacetime.narod.ru/0010-pdf.zip.

[4]

W. Azjukowski. akten Wissens.,

\Dynamik Stuttgart,

1d9e7s4,ANthue.r2s.,"s.Id4e8e{n58d.es

ex-

[5] V.A. Atsukovsky. \The introduction into etherdynamics. Model imaginations of material and eld structures

on the basis of gas like ether." Moskow, MOIP physics

d(ienp.R, u1s9s8ia0),.Dep. in VINITI 12.06.80 No. 2760-80 DEP.

[6] V.A. Atsukovsky. \General ether-dynamics. Simulation of the matter structures and elds on the basis of tMhoesicdoewa,s1a9b9o0u,t28th0epgpa.s(-ilnikeRuestshiear).." Energoatomizdat,

[7] D.C. Miller. \Ether drift experiments at Mount Wilson solar observatory." Phys. Rev., 1922, Vol. 19, pp. 407{ 408.

[8] D.C. Miller. \Ether drift experiment at Mount Wilson." Proc. Nat. Acad. Amer., 1925, Vol. 11, pp. 306{ 314.

[9] D.C. Miller. \Signicance of the ether-drift experiments of 1925 at Mount Wilson." Science., 1926, Vol. 68, No. 1635, pp. 433{443.

[10] A.A. Michelson, F.G. Pease, F. Pearson. \Repetition of the Michelson-Morley experiment." Journal of the

Optical Society of America and Review of Scientic In-
struments., 1929, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 181{182.

[11] E.T. Whittaker. \A History of the Theories of Aether

and Electricity." Izhevsk: RIC Regular and random

dynamics, 2001, 512 pp. (in Russia). E.T. Whittaker. \A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity." Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, Edinburgh, 1953.

[12] A.A. Michelson. \The relative motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous ether." The American Journal of Science., 1881, III series, Vol. 22, No. 128, pp.120{129.

[13] G.G. Petrash, S.G. Rautian. \Michelson's Interferometer." In the book \Physical encyclopaedic vocabulary." The Soviet encyclopedia, Moskow, 1962, Vol. 2, pp. 202{203 (in Russia).

[14] A.A. Michelson, E.W. Morley. \The relative motion of the Earth and the luminiferous aether." The American Journal of Science. Third Series., 1887, Vol. 34, pp. 333{345; Philosophical journal., 1887, Vol. 24, pp. 449{ 463.

[15] W.I. Frankfurt, A.M. Frank. \Optics of moving media." Nauka, Moskow, 1972, 212 pp. (in Russia).

[16] S.I. Vavilov. \New searchs of \the ether drift"." Successes of physical sciences, 1926, Vol. 6, pp. 242{254 (in Russia).

[17] R.J. Kennedy. \A renement of the Michelson-Morley experiment." Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. of USA., 1926, Vol. 12, pp. 621{629.

[18] K.K. Illingworth. \A repetition of the MichelsonMorley experiment using Kennedy's renement." Physical Review., 1927, Vol. 30, pp. 692{696.

[19] E. Stahel. \Das Michelson-Experiment, ausgefurt im Freiballon." \Die Naturwissenschaften," Heft 41, 1926, B8, Nu. 10, S. 935{936.

[20] Joos G. Die Jenaer. \Widerholung des Mihelsonversuchs." Ann. Phys., 1930, B7, S. 385{407.

[21] \Ether-drift," Digest by Dr. in Sc. V.A. Atsukovsky. Energoatomizdat, Moskow, 1993, 289 pp. (in Russia).

[22] D.C. Miller. \The ether-drift experiment and the determination of the absolute motion of the Earth." Rev. Modern. Phys., 1933, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 203{242.

[23]

L. Essen. 1955, Vol.

\A new ether drift 175, pp. 793{794.

experiment."

Nature.,

[24] J.P. Cedarholm, G.F. Bland, B.L. Havens, C.H. Townes. \New experimental test of special relativity." Phys. Rev. Letters., 1958, Vol. 1, No. 9. pp. 342{349.

[25] D.C. Cyampney, G.P. Isaac, M. Khan. \An ether drift experiment based on the Mssbauer eect." Phys., Letters., 1963, Vol. 7, pp. 241{243.

[26] T.S. Jaseja, A. Javan, J. Murbeam, C.H. Townes. \Test of special relativity or space isotropy by use of infrared masers." Phys. Rev., 1964. Vol. 133a, pp. 1221{1225.

[27] L.G. Loytsyansky. \Mechanics of 
uid and gas." Nauka, Moskow, 1973, 848 pp. (in Russia).

[28] N.A. Slezkin. \Dynamics of viscous incompressible 
uid." Gostechizdat, Moskow, 1955, 520 pp. (in Russia).

[29] S.G. Rautian. \Rozhdestvensky's Interferometer." In the book \Physical encyclopaedic vocabulary." The Soviet encyclopedia, Moskow, 1962, Vol. 2. p. 203 (in Russia).

[30] L.Z. Rumshisky. \Mathematical processing of the experiment results." Nauka, Moskow, 1971, 192 pp. (in Russia).

& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 225{233 Spacetime Substance,

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

ON THE BASIS FOR GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORY
S.N. Arteha1
Space Research Institute, Profsoyuznaya 84/32, Moscow 117997, Russia

Received December 23, 2002

The basic concepts of the general relativity theory (GRT), such as space, time, the relativity of simultaneity, are systematically analyzed. The logical inconsistencies of basic GRT notions are indicated. Many disputable and contradictory points of this theory and its corollaries are considered in detail.

1. Introduction
A series of logical paradoxes has been analyzed in detail in [1-3], and the complete experimental and logical gthroeuGndRlTesscnoenstsaoinf sSRsoTmwe arsatdheemr oinnstterraetsetdin.gUindleiakse, SsRuTch, as the principle of equivalence expressed via the idea of \geometrization." If it's basis were true, the GRT could have a claim on status of a hypothesis about some correction to the static Newton's law of gravitation. Since it is not the case, the gravitation theory must be constructed in a dierent manner.
The basic purpose of this work is the criticism of basis notions of GRT; it is contained in Section 2. A logical inconsistency of space and time notions in GRT is demonstrated here. The plausible errors and disputable points from the textbooks [4-6] are displayed step by step. The time synchronization issues and the Mach principle are also discussed, and the attention is given to doubtful corollaries from GRT. Section 3 contains the conclusions.
2. Criticism of GRT Fundamentals
Many GRT inconsistencies are well-known: 1) the principle of correspondence is violated (the limiting transition to the case without gravitation can not exist without introducing the articial external conditions); 2) the conservation laws are absent; 3) the relativity of accelerations contradicts the experimental facts (rotating liquids under space conditions have the shape of ellips4o)idths,ewshinegruealasrnsoonlu-rtoiotantsinegxiosnt.es(U- tshuealslpy,haerniycatlhsehoarpye)is; considered to be inapplicable in similar cases, but GRT for saving its \universal character" begins to construct fantastic pictures, such as black holes, Big Bang, etc.). begLinetwuitshcothnesidmeyrtthhe\ognentehrealcocvlaairmiasncoef."theTGheRuTn.aWme-
1e-mail: sergey.arteha@mtu-net.ru

bmiginueodu,sesxocleupttiotnheoffoarnmy odfithereenetqiuaalteioqnu,atailosno ibsydsepteecr-ication of the initial and/or boundary conditions. If they are not specied, then, in the general case, the covariance either does not determine anything, or, at cinhaangpihnygsitchael cnhoanrsaecntseer. oIff,thheowsoelvuetri,onth,ecainniteivaelnanreds/uoltr boundary conditions are specied, then with substitution of the solutions we obtain the identities, which will remain to be identities in any case for any correct transformations. For any solution it is possible to invent the equations, which will be invariant with respect to some specied transformation, if we properly interchange the initial and/or boundary conditions.
The analogies with subspaces are often used in the GRT; for example, a rolled 
at sheet is considered. However, the subspace cannot be considered separately from the space as a whole. For example, in rolling a sheet into a cylinder the researcher usually transfers, for convenience, into the cylindrical coordinate system. However, this mathematical manipulation does not in
uence at all the real three-dimensional space and the real shortest distance.
The simplicity of postulates and their minimum quantity do not still guarantee the correctness of the stoioluntsiiosna: deivecnultthperopbroleomf .oTf heqeuniuvamlebnecreofopfrGerReqTuissoitluesshould be, on one hand, sucient for obtaining a correct unambiguous solution, and, on the other hand, it should provide wide possibilities for choosing mathememaatitciacsl mpoestsheosdsessoiftssooluwtnionlawansd).cTomhepaGrRisTon, (atlhoengmwatithharticial complication of mathematical procedures, has introduced, in fact, the additional number of \hidden tting parameters" (from metrical tensor components). Since the real eld and metrics are unknown in GRT and are subject to determination, the result is simply tted to necessary one with using a small amount of really various experimental data.
Whereas in SRT though an attempt was made to

226

S.N. Arteha

conrm the constancy of light speed experimentally and to prove the equality of intervals theoretically, in GRT eGcvaResenT, stsuhicnehcienattiettegmcraaplntRsdabhedaplveenisdnnooottnbmetehenaenupinnadgtehfurtloaifkneitnnht.eeSggrienancteieoriannl, all integral quantities and integral-involving derivations can have no sense.
A lot of questions cause us to muse. If the general covariance of equations is indispensable and unambiguous, then what could be the limiting transition to classical equations, which are not generally covariant? What is the sense of gravitation waves, if the notion of energy and its density is not dened in GRT? Similarly, what is meant in this case by the group velocity of light (and by the niteness of a signal transmission rate)?
The generality of conservation laws does not depend on the method of their derivation (either by means of transformations from the physical laws or from symmetries of the theory). The obtaining of integral quantities and the use of integration over the surface can lead to dierent results in the case of motion of the surface (for example, it can depend on the order of limiting transitions). The absence in GRT of the laws of conservation of energy, momentum, angular momentum and center of masses, which have been conrmed by numerous experiments and have \worked" for centuries, cause serious doubts in GRT (following the principle of continuity and eligibility of the progress of science). The GRT, however, has not yet built up a reputation for itself in anything till now, except globalistic claims on tohfethperiUnnciipvaerllsye aunndvesroimaeblrea,thbeyr edxopuebrtimfuelnttst,inegvsoluuntdioenr a scarce experimental base. The following fact causes even more doubt in GRT: for the same system (and only of \insular" type) some similarity of the notion of enevregcytocra. nHsoowmeveetirm, oenslbyelininetarrocdouocreddinwaittehs suhsoinugldKbielliunsge'ds in this case, but not polar ones, for example. The auxiliary mathematical means can not in
uence, of course, the essence of the same physical quantity. And, nally, the non-localizability of energy and the possibility of its spontaneous non-conservation even in the Universe scales (this is a barefaced \perpetuum mobile") cause us to refuse from GRT completely and either to revise the conception \from zero," or to use some other developing approaches. Now we shall pass from general comments to more specic issues.
The question on the change of space geometry in GRT is fully aberrant. The niteness of the rate of transmission of interactions can change only physical, bthuattntohtemstartahigemhtaltiincealdloawess.noWt hexetishte,rosnhlayllbweceauasseseritts, drawing into innity, even at light speed, will require innite time? (The same is true for the plane and space). The mathematical sense of derivatives can not change as well. One of GRT demonstrations \on the inevitabili-

ty of the change of geometry in the non-inertial system" is as follow: in the rotating coordinate system, due to contraction of lengths, the ratio of the length of a circle to its diameter will be lower, than . In fact, however, not only the true, but even the observed geometry will not change: whether the mathematical line will move or change as we move? Suppose at rst, that the circle will move radially. Let we have three concentric circles of almost the same radius. We place the observers on these circles and number them in the order from the center: 1, 2, 3. Let the second observer be motionless, whereas rst and third ones are rotating around center O clockwise and counter-clockwise at the same angular velocity. Then, owing to the dierence in relative velocities and contraction of lengths, the observers will interchange their places. However, when they happen to be at the same point of space, they will see dierent pictures. Indeed, the 1-st observer will see the following position from the center: 3, 2, 1, whereas the 2-nd observer will see the dierent order: 1, 3, 2, and only the 3-rd observer will see the original picture: 1, 2, 3. So, we have a contradiction. Suppose now, that the geometry of a rotating plane has changed. However, what will be more preferable in such a case: the top or the bottom? The problem is symmetric, in fact; to what side the plane has curved in such a case? If we make the last supposition, that the radius has curved (as the apparent motion changes in the non-inertial system), then the second observer will see it as non-curved, whereas the rst and third observers will consider it as \curved" to dierent sides. Thus, three observers will see dierent pictures at the same point for the same space; therefore, the curvature of the radius is not an objective fact.
The rotating circle proves the contradictive nature of SRT and GRT ideas. Really, according to the textbooks, the radius, which is perpendicular to the motion, does not change. Therefore, the circles will remain at their places irrespective of the motion. Let us seat the observers on a motionless circle at equal distances from each other and produce a point-like 
ash from the center of a circle, in order the observers to draw the strokes on moving circles. Owing to the symmetry of a problem, the strokes will also be equidistant. At subsequent periodic 
ashes each observer will conrm, that a stroke mark passes by him at the 
ash instant, that is, the lengths of segments of motionless and rotating circles are equal. When the circles stop, the marks will remain at their places. The number of equidistant marks will not change. Therefore, the lengths of segments will be equal in the motionless case as well. Thus, no contraction of lengths and change of geometry took place at all.
Now we consider again the space geometry problem. This problem is entirely confused still since the times of Gauss, who wanted to determine the geometry with the help of light beams. The limited nature of any experi-

On the Basis for General Relativity Theory

227

A

L

B

g

C
Figure 1: \Geometry of a triangle"

ment can not in
uence the ideal mathematical notions, does it? Note, that in GRT the light even moves not awlilgRhohendtrgleint=ghseu0cs,hhiswoamretceehastastrevic?peatiTetnhnh:sGeoirnRn.eTscWtee[sah4sd]ia:ttyodfooRFfee(csr1hmd=apinasttggi'i0nsn0gg)pudrtilishnh=ecitpgh0elee-, ometry is often \substantiated" in textbooks as follows: in order the light to \draw" a closed triangle in the gravitational eld, the mirrors should be turned around at some angle; as a result, the sum of angles of a triangle will dier from . However, for any point-like body and three re
ectors in the eld of gravity (see Fig. 2) the sum of \angles" can be written as:

!

!

X i =  + 4 arctan

gL
2v02

2 arctan

gL v02

:

It occurs, that the geometry of one and the same space

depends on the conditions of the experiment: on L and

vca0n.

Since the angle  between also be changed, we have a

the mirrors A and B possibility of articial

changing the geometry within wide limits. Note, that

the same variable parameters  and L remain for the

light as well. In such \plausible" proofs of the neces-

sity of changing the geometry some important points

are not emphasized. First, both in the experiment with

material points, and in the experiment with the light

the geometry is \drawn" sequentially during some time,

rather than instantaneously. Second, for accelerated

systems the particles (and the light) move in vacuum

rectilinearly, according to the law of inertia, and, ac-

tually, the motion of the boundaries of this accelerated

system is imposed on this motion additively. All an-

gles of incidence (in the laboratory system) are equal

to corresponding angles of re
ection, and the \geome-

try of angles" does not change at all. Simply, the gure

is obtained unclosed because of motion of the bound-

aries. Third, the role of the boundaries is not uncovered

at all in determining the relations between the lengths

of real bodies. For example, if all points of a real body are subject to the eect of identical accelerating force, then the mutual relation between lengths and angles (\the geometry") remains unchanged. If, however, only the boundaries are subject to acceleration, then all real changes of bodies' size take place only at interaction with the boundaries. In any case the Euclidean straight lines can be drawn. For example, to draw the horizontal straight line in the gravitational eld we take two similar long rods. At the middle of the rst rod we install a point-like support. As a result of bending of a rod, the upward-convex line is generated. Then we install two point-like supports for the second rod at the level of two lowered ends of the rst rod. As a result of bending of the second rod, the downward-convex line is generated. The middle line between these two bonded rods determines the straight line.
Now we shall turn to the next important GRT notion - the equivalence of the gravitational eld to some system non-inertiality. In contrast to any non-inertial system, the gravitational eld possesses some unique property: all moving objects de
ect in it toward a single center. If we generate two light beams between two ideal parallel mirrors and direct them perpendicular to mirrors, then in the inertial system these beams will move parallel to each other for innitely long time. A similar situation will take place at acceleration in the non-inertial system, if the mirrors are oriented perpendicular to the direction of acceleration. And, on the contrary, in the gravitational eld with similar orientation of mirrors the light beams will begin to approach esuarcehdotdhuerri.ngAnthde, iofbssoemrveaetioenc,t twhielnl ,haopwpienng ttoo bae gmreeaatvalue of light speed, the existence of namely the gravitational eld (rather than the non-inertiality) can also be found. Obviously, the curvature of mirrors should nitoattiboenatlakfoernceinsttohceorenseixdiesrtatailosno,tshinecoet,haelronfogrwceist,hwghraicvhcan retain the mutual conguration of mirrors. The distinction of a spherical symmetry from planar one can be found for weak gravitational elds as well. The GRT conclusion on the possibility of excluding the gravitational eld for some inertial system during the whole observation time is wrong in the general case.
The equivalence principle of the gravitational eld and acceleration can be related to one spatial point onlbye,aim.e.dite
isecutniorena,lf(oirt elexaadmedplteo).aTfahleseerqeusiuvlatlfeonrctehperliingchitple of the inertial and gravitating mass can be rigorously formulated also for a separate body only (it is unreal for GRT, since GRT involves interdependence of the snpoatcpeh-tyimsicealalnydpraollcebeodditeos)a.nyBencoanu-sreeloaftitvhisist,icGtRheTordyoaest all (but formally mathematically only). All relativistic linear transformations can be related to empty space only, since real bodies (even as reference points) lead to nonlinear properties of the space. Then, phenome-

228

S.N. Arteha

na dierences with changing reference systems must be

studied for the same point (in the space and time). But

how can two dierent observers be placed at one point?

Therefore, the relativistic approach can possess the ap-

proximate model character only (without globality).

It is not any surprising thing, that the same physical

value - a mass - can participate in dierent phenomena:

as a measure of inertia (for any acting forces, includ-

ing the gravitational one) and as a graviting mass (for

example, a moving charge produces both electric and

magnetic elds). The question on the rigorous equality

of inertial and gravitating massess is entirely articial,

since this equality depends on the choice of a numeri-

cal value of the gravitational constant 
. For example,

expressions (laws) retain the same form in the case of

pstraonptorwtiiollnbaelitdyemnged=asm
i0n=, bu2t
t.heItgriasvnitoattinoencaelsscaorny-

to search any mystics and to create pictures of curved

space. The substitution of the same value (for the in-

ertial and gravitating mass) is made not only for GRT,

but for the Newton's theory of gravitation as well. It is

nothing more than an experimental fact.

When one comes to the dependence of a form of

equations on space-time properties [7], there exists

some speculation for this idea. The impression is given

that we can change this space-time to check the de-

pendence claimed. In fact, the Universe is only one

(unique). GRT tries to add a complexity of the Uni-

verse to any local phenomena, which is not positive

for science. The choice of local coordinates is a dier-

ent matter (a phenomenon symmetry can simplify the

description) and globality is not the case again.

The use of non-inertial systems in GRT is contra-

dictory intrinsically. Really, in a rotating system rather

distant objects will move at velocity greater than light

speed; but SRT and GTR assert, that the apparent

velocities should be lower, than c. However, the ex-

perimental fact is as follows: the photograph of the

sky, taken from the rotating Earth, indicates, that the

visible solid-state rotation is observed. The use of a ro-

tating system does not contradict the classical physics

at any distance from the center, whereas in GRT the

vinaaludemoisfsigb0l0e

component in GRT).

becomes

negative

(but

this

is

The notion of time in GRT is confused beyond the

limit as well. What does it mean by the clock syn-

chronization, if it is possible only along the unclosed

lines? The change of time reference point in moving

around a closed path is an obvious contradiction of

GRT, since at a great synchronization rate many simi-

lar passes-around can be made, and arbitrary aging or

rejuvenation can be obtained. For example, considering

the vacuum (emptiness) to be rotating (if we ourselves

shall move around a circle), we can get various results

depending on a mental idea.

Using the modied paradox of twins [1], the inde-

pendence of time on acceleration can easily be proven.

Let two astronauts - the twins - are at a great distance

from each other. On a signal of the beacon, situated at

the middle, these astronauts begin to 
y toward a bea-

con at the same acceleration. Since in GRT the time

depends on the acceleration and the acceleration has

relative character, each of the astronauts will believe,

that his twin brother is younger than he is. At meeting

near the beacon they can exchange photos. However,

owing to the problem symmetry, the result is obvious:

the time in an accelerated system 
ows at the same rate,

as in non-accelerated one. If we suppose the gravita-

tional eld to be equivalent to the acceleration (accord-

ing to GRT), then we obtain, that the time intervals do

not depend on the gravitational eld presence.

Now we make some remarks concerning the method

of synchronization of times by means of a remote pe-

riodic source disposed perpendicular to the motion of

a body [1]. We begin with inertial systems. The pos-

sibility of time synchronization on restricted segments

makes it possible to synchronize the time throughout

the line of motion. Indeed, if for each segment there

exists an arbitrarily remote periodic source sending the

following of passed

information: seconds (the

ittsimneumrebfeerrenNcje,

the quantity point is not

cnoj-

ordinated with other sources), then the observers at

junctions of segments can compare the time reference

point for a source on the left and for a source on the

right. Transmitting this information sequentially from

the rst observer to the last one, it is possible to estab-

lish a single time reference point (the time itself, as it

was shown in [1], has absolute sense).

Apparently, the observed rate of transmission of

synchronization signals has no eect on the determina-

tion of duration of times: the pulses (for example, light

spheres or particles), which mark the number of passed

seconds, will equidistantly ll the whole space, and the

number of spheres emitted by a source will be equal

to the number of spheres, which intersect the receiving

observer. (We are not the gods, you see, to be able

to introduce the \beginning of times": the time takes

already its normal course and elapses uniformly.) Even

if we consider the apparent signal propagation rate to

be c = c(r), then, irrespective of the path of light, the

number of spheres reached the receiving observer (hav-

ing a zero velocity component in the source direction)

will be the same as the number of spheres emitted by a

source (simply, the spheres can be spatially thickened

or rareed somewhere). Thus, the full synchronization

is possible in the presence of spatial inhomogeneities (of

the gravitational eld) as well.

In physics it is not accepted to take into account

the same eect twice. It is clear, that the accelera-

tion and gravitation express some force, that in
uences

various processes. But this will be the general result

of the eect of namely the forces. For example, not

any load can be withstood by a man, the pendulum

clock will not operate under zero gravity, but this does

On the Basis for General Relativity Theory

229

not mean, that the time stopped. Therefore, the rough

Hafele-Keating's experiment states the trivial fact, that

the gravitation and acceleration somehow in
uence the

processes in a cesium atomic watch, and the high rela-

tive accuracy of this watch is fully groundless for a xed

site. Besides, interpretation of this experiment contra-

dicts the \explanation" of the Pound-Rebka's experi-

ment with supposition about independence of frequen-

cy of emission in \the units of intrinsic atom time" [5]

on gravitational eld. Besides, a further uncertainty in

GRT must be taken into consideration: there can ex-

ist immeasurable rapid eld 
uctuations (with a rate

greater than inertness of measuring instruments) even

in ty

tehxeisatsbsfoenr caenyofvtahlueemoefagn:seilndcegt.hSeutcihmethien

uncertainGRT does

not will

dbeepennodnzoenroge-vdeinrecwtiitohn,<thegn>a=n

eective potential 0. Whether is it

possible to invent, though theoretically, a precise watch,

which can be worn by anybody? Probably, a rotating


ywheel with a mark (in the absence of friction - on

a superconducting suspension), whose axis is directed

along the gravitational eld gradient (or along the re-

sultant force) could read out the correct time. At least,

no obvious reasons and mechanisms of changing the ro-

tation rate are seen in this case. Certainly, for weak

gravitation elds such a watch will be less accurate at

the modern stage, than cesium one. We hypothesize,

that atom decay is anisotropic, and this anisotropy can

be interrelated with a direction of the atomic magnetic

moment. In this case we can regulate atomic moments

and freeze the system. Then, the \frozen clock" will

register dierent time depending on its orientation in

the gravitational eld.

Now we return to synchronizing signals (for simul-

taneous measurement of lengths, for example). For a

rectilinearly moving, accelerated system it is possible

to use the signals from a remote source being perpen-

dicular to the line of motion, and for the segment of

a circle the source can be at its center. These cases

actually cover all non-inertial motions without gravi-

tation. (Besides, for the arbitrary planar motion it is

possible to make use of a remote periodic source being

on a perpendicular to the plane of motion.) For the

real gravitational eld of spherical bodies in arbitrary

motion along the equipotential surfaces it is possible to

use periodic signals issuing from the gravitational eld

center.

Note, that to prove the inconsistency of SRT and

GRT conclusions on the change of lengths and time

intervals it is sucient, that the accuracy of ideal mea-

surement of these values could principally exceed the

value of the eect predicted by SRT and GRT. For ex-

ample, for a source being at the middle perpendicular

to the line of motion we have: t = l2=(8Rc); that

is, t can be decreased not only by choosing the great

radius of a light sphere, but also by choosing a small

section of motion l. From the SRT formulas on time

contraction we have: t = l(1 p1 v2=c2)=v. If for nite R and specied speed v we choose such l, that the inequality

l=(8Rc) < (1 p1 v2=c2)=v;

(1)

be met, then the conclusions of relativistic theories occur to be invalid.
For the system arbitrarily moving along the radius (drawn from the gravitational eld center) it is possible to use for synchronization a free falling periodic source on the perpendicular to the line of motion. In this case R should be chosen of such value, that the eld can not actually change (due to equipotential sphere rounding) at this distance, and corresponding l from (1) near the point, to which the perpendicular is drawn. Therefore, the GRT conclusions can be refuted in this case as well. For the most important special cases the \universal" SRT and GRT conclusions on the contraction of distances as a property of the space itself are invalid. In the most general case it seems intuitively quite obvious, that such a position of a periodic source can be found, that the signal to come perpendicular to the motion, and that such R and l from (1) to exist, which refute the GRT results. There is no necessity at all in a \spread" frame of reference and in an arbitrarily operating clock: any change of real lengths should be explained by real forces; it is always possible to introduce a system of mutually motionless bodies and the universal time. Thus, the space and time must be Newtonian and independent on the motion of a system.
Now we pass to mathematical methods of GRT and to corollaries of this theory. The games with the spacetime properties result in the fact, that in GRT the application of variation methods occurs to be questionable: the quantities are not additive, the Lorentz transformations are non-commutative, the integral quantities depend on the path of integration. Even it is not clear, how the terminal points can be considered as xed, if the distances are dierent in dierent frames of reference.
Because of nonlocalizableness (non-shieldness) of gravitation eld, conditions on innity (because of the mass absence on innity, it is euclideanness) are principally important for the existence of the conservation laws [7] (for systems of the insular type only). The classical approach is more successive and useful (theoretically and practically): energy is determined correctly to a constant, since the local energy dierence between two transition points has a physical meaning (therefore, conditions on innity is groundless).
Highly doubtful is the procedure of linearization in the general form, since it can be only individual. The tending to simplicity is declared, but even two times are introduced - coordinate and intrinsic ones. The tting to the well-known or intuitive (classically) result is often made. So, for motion of Mercury's perihelion [5] the du=d' derivative can have two signs. Which

230

S.N. Arteha

of them should be chosen? To say already nothing of

the fact, that the dividing by du=d' is performed, but

this quantity can be zero. Calculating the perihelion

displacement in GRT (from the rigorous solution for

a single attractive point), the impression is given that

we know astronomical masses exactly. If we use GRT

as a correction to Newton's theory, the situation is in

fact opposite: there exists a problem knowing visible

planet motions to reestablish the exact planet masses

(to substitute the latters and to check GRT thereafter).

Imagine the circular planet orbit. It is obvious in this

case, that the Newtonian rotation period will already

be taken with regard to an invisible precession, i.e. the

period will be renormalized. Therefore, renormalized

masses are already included in Newton's gravitation

theory. Since the GRT-corrections are much less than

the perturbation planet actions and the in
uence of a

non-sphericity, the reestablishment of exact masses can

essentially change the description of a picture of the

motion for this complex many-body problem (see other

objections [2]). No such detailed analysis was carried

out. The complexity of spatial-temporal links is stat-

ed, but eventually one passes for a very long time to

customary mathematical coordinates; otherwise there

is nothing to compare the results with. For what was

there a scrambling?

The prototype of the \black hole" in Laplac's solu-

tion, where the light, moving parallel to the surface,

begins to move over a circle like the articial satel-

lite of the Earth, diers from the GRT ideas. Noth-

ing prohibits the light with a rather high energy to

escape the body in the direction perpendicular to its

surface. There is no doubt, that such beams will exist

(both by internal and external reasons): for example,

the beams falling from outside will be able to accumu-

late energy, in accordance with the energy conservation

law, and to leave such a \black hole" after re
ecting.

\The black holes" in GRT is a real mysticism. If we

take a long rod, then at motion its mass will increase

and the size will decrease (according to SRT). What

will happen? Is \the black hole" generated? All the

sky will become lled with \black holes," if we shall

move rapidly enough. And, you see, this process would

be irreversible.

The presence of singularities or multiple connection

of the solution implies, that, as a minimum, the solution

is inapplicable in these regions. Such a situation takes

place with the change of the space - time signature for

the \black hole" in the Schwarzschild solution, and it is

not necessary to search any articial philosophical sense

in this situation. The singuliarity in the Schwarzschild

solution for r mathematical

m=anrigpuclaantinoonts:

betheeliamdidniatitoend

obfy

tphuereinly-

nity with the other sign at this point is the articial

game with the innities, but such a procedure requires

the physical basis. (You see, the singularity at zero is

not eliminated by articial addition of exp ( r)=r,

where  is a large quantity). Even from GRT follows the impossibility of observa-
tion of \black holes": the time of \the black hole" formation will be innite for us as remote observers. And since the collapse cannot be completed, the solutions, which consider all things as though they have already happened, have no sense. The separation of events by innite time for internal and external observers is not \an extreme example of the relativity of the time course," but the elementary manifestation of the inconsistency of Schwarzschild's solution. The same fact follows from \the incompleteness" of systems of solutions. It is not clear, what will happen with the charge conservation law, if a greater quantity of charges of the same sign will enter \the black hole"? The mystical description of \metrical tidal forces" [6] at approaching \the black hole" is invalid, since it would mean, that the gravitation force gradient is great within the limits of a body, but all GRT ideas are based on the opposite assumptions. The Kerr metric in the presence of rotation also clearly demonstrates the inconsistency of GRT: it gives in a strict mathematical manner several physically unreal solutions (the same operations, as for Schwarzschild's metric, do not save the situation).
GRT contains a lot of doubtful prerequisites and results. List some of them. For example, the requirement of gravitational eld weakness for low velocities is doubtful: if the spacecraft is landed on a massive planet, whether it can not stand or slowly move? Whether some molecules with low velocities cannot be found in spite of temperature 
uctuations? The consideration of a centrally symmetric eld in GRT has not physical sense as well: since the velocity can be only radial, then not only rotations, but even real temperature characteristics can not exist (i.e. T = 0K ). The eld in a cavity is not obtained in a single manner, but, simply, two various constants are postulated in order to avoid singularities. The emission of gravitation waves for a parabolic motion (with eccentricity e = 1) results in the innite loss of energy and angular momentum, which obviously contradicts the experimental data. In fact, GRT can be applied only for weak elds and weak rotations, i.e. in the same region, as the Newtonian theory of gravitation. Recall that the interaction between moving charges diers from the static Coulomb law. Therefore, prior to applying the static Newtonian law of gravitation, it must be veried for moving bodies, but this is a prerogative of the experiment.
The theories of evolution of the Universe will remain the hypotheses for ever, because none of assumptions (even on the isotropy and homogeneity) can be veried: \a moving train, which departed long ago, can be catched up only at the other place and at the other time." GRT assigns to itself the resolution of a series of paradoxes (gravitational, photometric, etc.). However, the classical physics has also described the possibilities of resolution of similar paradoxes (for example, by

On the Basis for General Relativity Theory

231

means of Charlier's structures, etc.). Apparently, the direction, points of application etc.). \The reference

Universe is not a spread medium, and we do not know points" are actually specied, with respect to which

at all its structure as a whole to assert the possibility the subsequent changes of quantities (position, veloc-

of realization of conditions for similar paradoxes (more ity, acceleration etc.) are investigated. The principal

probably, the opposite situation is true). For example, relativity of all quantities in GRT contradicts the ex-

the Olbers paradox can easily be understood on the ba- periments. The subsequent articial attempt to derive

sis of the analogy with the ocean: the light is absorbed, accelerations (or rotations) with respect to the local

scattered and re
ected by portions, and the light sim- geodesic inertial Lorentzian system - this is simply the

ply ceases to penetrate to a particular depth. Certainly, tting to only workable and experimentally veried co-

such \a depth" is huge for the rareed Universe. How- ordinates of the absolute space (GRT does not contain

ever, the 
ashing stars represent rather compact objects any similar things organically [7]).

spaced at great distances from each other. As a result, The Mach principle of stipulation of an inert mass

only a nite number of stars make a contribution into and absolute nature of the acceleration due to the in
u-

the light intensity of the night sky.

ence of far stars is also doubtful, since it explains the in-

The expanding of the Universe gives a red shift ac- trinsic properties of one body via the properties of other

cording to the Doppler eect irrespective of GRT. Be- bodies. Of course, the idea is elegant in itself. If ev-

sides, it should be taken into consideration, that even erything in the world is supposed to be interdependent

the elementary scattering will make contribution in- and some ideal complete equation of state is believed to

to the red shift and lling of the so-called relic radi- exist, then any property of bodies should be determined

ation: recall that the Compton eect gives waves with by the in
uence of the whole remaining Universe. How-

0 >
been

w0e.llTphreedshicitfetdofelvinenesbiny

the gravitational eld has mechanistic models from

ever, in such a case any particle should be considered to be individual. This way is faulty for science, which

the general energy considerations.

progresses from smaller knowledge to greater, since \it

Now we pass to the following principal issue. Whether is impossible to grasp the immense." Actually, if we

positive is the fact, that the distribution and motion take into account the non-uniform distribution of mass

of the matter cannot be specied arbitrarily? And (in compact objects) and dierent values of attraction

whether is it correct? Generally, this implies the incon- forces from close and far objects, then the complete

sistency of the theory, because there exist other forces, \tugging" would be obtained instead of uniform rota-

except gravitational ones, which are also capable to tion or uniform inertial motion of an object.

transpose the matter. From the practical viewpoint The Mach principle cannot be veried in essence:

this means, that we should specify all distributions both removal of all bodies from the Universe and tend-

in \the correct-for-GRT" manner even at the initial ing of the gravitation constant to zero are the abstrac-

time instant. to \the time

In of

such a case creation,"

we did

swheo?uldArnefderwth0aitnsptrainnt-

tions having nothing in common with the reality. However, it is possible to estimate the in
uence of \far

ciples should be unambiguously determinate for such stars" experimentally by considering the mass of the

a choice? This requires more knowledge, than it is Universe as mainly concentrated in compact objects.

expected from GRT. Open to question occurs to be The force of attraction of a star having a mass of the

the possibility of point-like description and the theory order of the Sun's mass (M  2 1030 kg), being at the

of disturbances, because the resulting values cannot distance of 1 light year ( 9 1015 m), is equivalent to

be arbitrary as well. The joining of a completely unknown equation of state implies articial complication

the the

action of a distance of

l1oamdehtearv.inWgeasmhaalslsmofakoenluysem, 0for a2w5 hgilaet,

of macro- and micro-levels by linkage and re
ects the of the doubtful Big Bang theory and shall consider the

possibility of arbitrary ttings (for example, the tem- time for the Universe to be equal to  2 1010 years.

perature dependence is rejected). The possibility of Even if the stars 
y away with light speed, we would

adding the cosmological constant into Einstein's equa- have the size of the Universe equal to  2 1010 light

tions is an indirect recognition of ambiguity of GRT years. We have deliberately increased all quantities;

equations and of possible outrage. If everything can for example, the mass of the Universe and its density

be specied to such an accuracy, then why cannot we   1033=1054  10 21 g=cm3. We take into account

specify in arbitrary manner the initial distribution and now, that, as the bodies move away from each other

the motion of a matter?

at the two-fold distance, the force decreases four-fold,

Let us discuss one more principal point concerning etc. Even if we suppose the mean distance between

the relativity of all quantities in GRT. The laws, written the stars to be 1 light year, then at the distance of 1

simply as the equations, determine nothing by themselves. The solution of any problem still requires the knowledge of specic things, such as the characteristics

meter it is necessary to place the mass 2251021=06)<of5M0 g0.In25fa(1ct+, c1o=e4+ci1e=n9t+2=6)

=(w2e5sPum1=unp2

to


expresses some

of a body (mass, shape etc.), the initial and/or bound- eective increase of the density at the observation line.

ary conditions, the characteristics of forces (magnitude, To simulate the action of \the whole Universe" we can

232

S.N. Arteha

1 r

R2

R’2

1

R3

R’3

2

Figure 2: The Mach principle and in
uence of the Universe

take a thick metal sphere with outer radius of 1 meter

and make its thickness varying in the direction to the

center.

Let the width of a solid sphere be 0:6 meters, i.e.

from the center up to 0:4 meters there is a niche, and

further, up to 1 meter, - the metal. Then a cylindrical

column of radius  0:35 cm will correspond to mass

Mtak0e

at density of into account

 8:3 g=cm3 the in
uence

. In reality, we should of stars in a cone, but

not only in a cylinder. Though we also have a spherical

metal cone, nevertheless, we shall estimate the orders

of magnitudes. We shall break a cone into cylindrical

layers, which arise as the new layers of stars are in-

volved into consideration (Fig. 2). Each new layer will

be greater, than a preceding layer, by 6 stars. The dis-

tances from the center to the nearest boundary of each

lgTalhyesee:rreoRfofirs=et1,ar=tshcie=arnc.obrTerehfcoetunionnwdeftrohoamavetmhRea0isss=im(p wilaeir2is(tu1ym+ofrut2rp)ia=tnro-.

2 1010) will be found as

m0(1

+

1 4

+


)1

+

X
i

6
R02i



<


M0 1

+

6r2

X
i

1
i









M0 1 + 6 10 5 log(2 1010)  M0(1 + 0:02):

Thus, our construction is quite sucient for taking into avcecrsoeunist i\nthneitew,htohleenUtnhieveorbstea."ineCd ehratarminolyn,icifsetrhieesUwniil-l diverge, and the construction will be inadequate. This, however, contradicts both GRT and the modern ideas.
Let now place the globules on a spring inside the sppuhmerpee.d Tooutavfrooimd tthheecsotlrlautcetruarleeanedct,s,inthaeddaiitriocna,ntbhee globules can be isolated from the sphere by a thin vessel. Now, if we spin up the sphere, then, according to the Mach principle, the centrifugal force should appear, and the globules will move apart of each other.

In this case the centrifugal force must be the same, as though the globules themselves would rotate. It seems quite obvious, that this is impossible, since such an effect would be noticed still long ago. Thus, we return to absolute notions of acceleration, mass, space and time dened still by Newton. However, the described experiment could appear to be useful for determining the corrections to the static Newton's law of gravitation. In this case the globules should have sucient freedom to move and to rotate, since the direction of action of correcting forces and moments of forces is unknown a priori.
The gravitational constant is not a mathematical constant at all, but it can undergo some variations [9]. Therefore, this value can account corrections to Newton's static law of gravitation (for example, these in
uences do not taken into consideration for the displacement of the perihelion of the Mercury). Generally speaking, the theory of short range for gravitation could be useful (but it can be not useful depending on the gravitation transmission rate) for the nite number of cases only: for the rapid (v ! c) motion of massive (the same order) bodies close to each other. The author does not know such practical examples.
The GRT approach to gravitation is unique: to be shut in the lift (to take pleasure from the fall) and to be not aware that the end (hurt oneself) will be after a moment. Of course, the real state is quite dierent one: we see always where and how we move relative to the attractive centre (contrary to Taylor and Wheeler, it is the second \particle," together with the rst \particle" | with the observer). That is the reason that the pure geometric approach is a temporal zigzag for physics (although it could ever be useful as a auxiliary technique). And two travelers from the parable [10] have need for \very little": for the wish to move from the equator just along meridians (on the spheric earth surface), but the rest of ve billion mans can not have such the wish. Contrary to traveler's wish, the wish \to do not attract to the Earth (or the Sun) and to 
y away to space" is inadequate. The notion force (the force of gravity in this case) re
ects this fact. Geometry cannot answer to the following questions: how many types of interactions exist in nature, why there exist they only, why there exist local masses, charges, particles, why the gravitational force is proportional just to r2, why there realize the specic values of physical constants in nature, and many other questions. These problems are the physical (experimental) prerogative.
3. Conclusions
The paper is devoted to the GRT criticism. A set of striking doubtful points from the GRT textbooks is emphasized, beginning with general concepts of the covariance, baseline physical notions, and nishing with more

On the Basis for General Relativity Theory

233

specic ones. The proof of the geometry invariance in a rotating coordinate system is carried out in detail. The groundlessness and inconsistency of the principle of equivalence in GRT is discussed. The inconsistency of the notion of time and its synchronization in GRT is demonstrated. The methods of time synchronization and simultaneous measurement of lengths are indicated for the most interesting special cases. The invariance of space geometry is demonstrated and the role of boundaries is also discussed in the paper. The doubtful points are emphasized both for the methods and for numerous corollaries of GRT. The inconsistency of the notion of \black holes," of Schwarzschild's solution and other GRT corollaries are considered in detail. The Mach principle and its possible verication are also discussed.
The ultimate conclusion of the paper consists in the ntiemceessaintyd ooff croetnusrtnruincgtintgo tchlaessgircaavlintaottiioonnsthoefosrpyaocne athnids established basis.
References
[1] S.N. Arteha, \On the Basis for Special Relativity Theory," to be published in Galilean Electrodynamics.
[2] S.N. Arteha, \On Frequency-Dependent Light Speed," to be published in Galilean Electrodynamics.
[3] S.N. Arteha, \On Relativistic Kinematic Notions," to be published in Galilean Electrodynamics.
[4] L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz, \The classical Theory of Fields," Nauka, Moscow, 1988 (in Russian).
[5] P.G. Bergmann, \Introduction to the Theory of Relativity," Inostrannaya Literatura, Moscow, 1947 (in Russian).
[6] E. Schmutzer, \Relativita tstheorie - Aktuell," Mir, Moscow, 1981 (in Russian).
[7] V. Fock, \The Theory of Space, Time and Gravitation," Pergamon Press, London, 1959.
[8] A.A. Logunov, M.A. Mestvirishvili, \Relativistic Theory of Gravitation," Nauka, Moscow, 1989 (in Russian).
[9] V.P. Ismailov, O.V. Karagios, A.G. Parkhanov, \The Investigation of variations of experimental data for the gravitational constant," Physical Thought of Russia 1/2, 20{26 (1999).
[10] E.F. Taylor, J.A. Wheeler, \Spacetime Physics," W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1966.

& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 234{234 Spacetime Substance,

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

ANOMALIES IN MOVEMENT OF \PIONEER 10/11"

AND THEIR EXPLANATION
N.A. Zhuck1
Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC Box 589, 3 Kolomenskaya St., Kharkov 61166, Ukraine

August 17, 2002
The author has oered the version of an explanation of anomalies of the Pioneer 10/11 motion on the basis of the Universe gravitational viscosity.

Pioneer 10 was launched on 2 March 1972 and it functions till now.
Pioneer 10 distance from Sun: 80.68 AU Speed relative to the Sun: 12.24 km/sec (27,380 mph) Distance from Earth: 12.21 billion kilometers (7.59 billion miles) Round-trip Light Time: 22 hours 38 minutes
Launched on 5 April 1973, Pioneer 11 followed its sister ship. Its mission ended on 30 September 1995, when the last transmission from the spacecraft was received.
Pioneer 10/11 have anomalies in the motion. A discussion of this phenomenon appears in the 4 October 1999 issue of Newsweek magazine. The mystery of the tiny unexplained acceleration towards the Sun in the motion of the Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and Ulysses spacecraft remains unexplained.
A team of planetary scientists and physicists led by John Anderson has identied a tiny unexplained acceleration towards the Sun in the motion of the Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and Ulysses spacecraft. The anomalous acceleration | about 10 billion times smaller than the acceleration we feel from Earth's gravitational pull (0:76 10 10 m/sec2 in report [1]) | was identied after detailed analyses of radio data from the spacecraft.
A variety of possible causes were considered including: perturbations from the gravitational attraction of planets and smaller bodies in the Solar system; radiation pressure, the tiny transfer of momentum when photons impact the spacecraft; general relativity; interactions between the Solar wind and the spacecraft; possible corruption to the radio Doppler data; wobbles and other changes in Earth's rotation; outgassing or thermal radiation from the spacecraft; and the possible in
uence of non-ordinary or dark matter.
After exhausting the list of explanations deemed most plausible, the researchers examined possible modication to the force of gravity as explained by New-
1e-mail: zhuck@ttr.com.ua

ton's law with the Sun being the dominant gravitational force.
However in 1984 the author of this work has deduced the new formula of a free motion of a material body instead of the Newton's rst law [2]

d2X dt2

+

H

dX dt

=

0;

(1)

where the label is entered

H

=

r 4G0 3

;

(2)

which corresponds to the Hubble constant, but has oth-

evrerpshe;ysXicailssaencsoeo(rhdeinreate0).

is medial density It now re
ects a

of the Unidissipation

of energy at a motion of material bodies and at spread

of elds. The Hubble constant is very small and equal

approximately 10 18 1/sec.

Medial density of a substance is equal approximate-

ly 4 10 21 kg/m3 in region of Solar system (one star

per 10 cubic kiloparsecs). Then the Hubble parameter

will be equal 1:1 10 15 1/sec. And the acceleration of

Pioneer 10 equal ( 1:3) 10 11 m/sec2 for the present

time. Earlier acceleration was more.

Thus, the gravitational viscosity is the most proba-

ble reason of motion anomaly of the Pioneer 10/11. At

least gravitational viscosity should be studied.

References

[1] N.I. Kolosnitsyn. \Relativistic orbit form and anomalies in \Pioneer 10/11" dynamics." Abstracts of 11-th International Conference \Theoretical and experimental problems of General Relativity and gravitation," 2002, pp. 68-69.
[2] N.A. Zhuck. \Gravitation viscosity and geotetic curvature of the Universe." Spacetime & Substance, 1, 2, 71{77 (2000). http://spacetime.narod.ru.

& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 235{237 Spacetime Substance,

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

AGAIN ON THE GUALA-VALVERDE HOMOPOLAR-INDUCTION EXPERIMENTS
Ricardo Achilles1
Con
uencia Tech University, Rosas y Soufal - P. Huincul Neuquen, ARG Q8318EFG
Received December 21, 2002

After independent repetition of the recently reported break-through experimentation on homopolar induction by Guala-Valverde et al [Apeiron, 8, 41 (2001)] some considerations are drawn on the torque-production mechanism applicable to machines founded on that principle. These considerations are based on the \action-at-a-distance" Ampre-Weber-Assis rationale.
1. Introduction

The Guala-Valverde (G-V) and coworkers success in

solving the old conundrum known as homopolar induc-

tion rests upon the singularity introduced in an uniform

magnet [1], [2], [3], [4], [5] providing a local, short range

B-eld reversion. The most striking feature of the G-V

homopolar-motor experiments occurs when the probe

is located in the singularity: while the free-to-rotate

probe denotes the presence of forces in correspondence

with the eld reversion observed in that region, the sta-

tionary circuit-closing wire remains insensitive to the

magnet singularity. It behaves as if there were no sin-

gularity at all! This experimental fact enabled G-V to

locate the seat of electromotive and ponderomotive ac-

tions in homopolar machines [1] conrming besides the

symmetry of both, generator and motor congurations.

The aforementioned, quiet a trivial fact for ordinary


ux-varying machines, was a rather obscure issue for

almost two centuries in the homopolar devices' case.

Energy conversion by a machine is made possible by

the relative motion of two of its constitutive parts; in

the specic case of electrical machines these two parts

are an active conductor -the probe or the closing wire in

G-V's nomenclature- and a magnet (or a second active

conductor). Any electrical-circuit part anchored to the

magnet will no longer play an active energy-conversion

role; it will be just a current-path closing means. The

remaining electrical circuit -with motion relative to the

magnet enabled- takes over energy conversion (mechan-

ical to electrical for a generator or vice versa for a mo-

tor). Fig. 1 sketches a homopolar motor where a cen-

tripetal direct current is applied to the probe attached

to the upward interaction in

tBhi-scealdsefaccaenobf ea sdpilsikt

magnet. The main in two [1], [6]:

1e-mail: achilles@ieee.org

Figure
closing

w1i:reTorques

on

the

homopolar-motor

magnet

and

| Magnet-probe: The magnet exerts a counterclockwise torque on the probe, the probe an equal but opposite torque on the magnet.
| Magnet-closing wire: The magnet exerts a clockwise torque on the closing wire, the closing wire an equal but opposite torque on the magnet. relaTtihvee pmroobtieonattaancdhedthteo athcteiomna-rgenaecttidoonescannocteplleartmioint mechanism among both parts inhibits energy conversion. On the contrary, the closing wire -with electrical continuity with the probe attained via the mercury ctoolltehcetomr raignngest- epnoasbselisnsegs erneelargtiyvecomnvoetirosnionw.ithThreisspleacttter interaction is the main responsible for the observed magnet-plus-probe rotation. Ironically, and against the customary absolutist argument of the magnet being dragged by the probe [1], the magnet is the drag-

236

Ricardo Achilles

Figure 2: Ampre-law current elements

ging agent. The additional closing wire-probe (currentcurrent) interaction was dismissed in the G-V analysis due to its negligible eect in comparison to the described mechanism.
As an IEEE member, last months some specialists came along asking me on the homopolar torqueproduction mechanism. I am intending to answer on this issue here.

2. AElmecptrreodvyenrsaumsiScstandard

Ampre force law [7], [8], draws the expression for the magnitude of the mechanical forces applied on two current elements Idl, I'dl' separated a distance r (see Fig. 2) as:

d2F = (o=4)(I I0=r2)[(2(dl dl0)

3(r dl)(r dl0)=r2]:

(1)

This formulation supplies a quite suitable tool to

better forces

oubnedyerNsteawntdont'hsethhoirmdolpawolabreipnhgenitosmdeirneac:titohnecdo2inF-

ctaidnecnetbaletwwietehntthheeocnuerroefnttheelesmegemntesn.tRredpeulnsiinong

the dis(attrac-

tion) occurs for a positive (negative)d2F magnitude.

As it is well known, a magnet may be modeled by

Ampre equivalent magnetizing currents [9], [10]. In

the homopolar-motor uniform B-eld case, the magnet

can be dened as a cylindrical azymuthal current shell.

The equivalent current I' of such a cilindrical magnet is

shown in Fig. 3, in conjunction with a centripetal con-

duction current I circulating through the probe. A few

quantitative considerations based on equation (1) can

be applied to the above described conguration to un-

derstand the homopolar torque-production mechanism:

the Ampre formulation dependence on (1/r2) denes

the magnetic-shell current elements located more close-

ly to the probe as the ones producing the main inter-

action. Let us consider the action of two such current

eIfdodller'lmcl(eoescendaet2tsFeFId'i'g2da.l)b'w3oa)vni:ledl a(aabnpepplaroetoawtbrr)aeoctncthoieontnhdpeurfoocmbtriceaoegnend-lece2mutF-rser'hne1ent(ltlrdeeelp.lleeummSlsuieeocnnnhtt

forces will include, in the general case indicated in the

Figure 3: Magnetizing shell-probe Ampre interaction in the
uniform eld motor

gure, radial and azymuthal components acting on the

bulk of the magnet. These latter components are the

main responsibles for the observed clockwise rotation.

This dominant interaction can be eliminated simply by

attaching the probe to the magnet. In such case, the

only interaction left is the counterclockwise torque ap-

plied on the magnet by the closing-wire current.

Standard Electrodynamics (SE) considerations based

omnatghneetLizaipnlgacceu'rsreexnpt reelsesmioenntdsFfa=ilIt(odelxxBpl)aianphpolimedoptooltahre-

devices torque production since -by vector product

pelreompeernttisesa-realrladthiael

forces to the

acting on the shell current magnet and, therefore, un-

able to generate torque (It has to be kept in mind that

during the last century the unrestricted equivalence

of the Ampre and SE formulations was conrmed for

closed circuits [7]). Moreover, a closed circuit in the

vicinity of an arbitrary current element will apply on

it forces perpendicular to its length (a fact manifestly

observed in the probe). In the G-V experiments the

interaction to look at is the one existing between a

nite current element (the probe or the closing wire)

ainngdcaurcrleonste)d. cAirncudith(etrhe,e aBcc-oredldinegqutoivaSlEen,tthmeacglnoestinizg-

wire is unable to produce any torque on the magnet:

a fact quite in opposition to experience! Conversely,

the interaction of the magnet with the mechanically

attached probe- plus-closing-wire circuit leads to the

same outcome for either formulation: a null torque on

both, closed circuit and magnet [7], [11]. At last, it is

also interesting to have a look of the current interaction

taking place in the magnet's singularity shown in Fig.

4. The currents interacting here are the centripetal

Again on the Guala-Valverge Homopolar-Induction Experiments

237

Figure 4: Magnetizing shell-probe Ampre interaction in the
G-V dynamotor magnet singularity
conduction current through the probe and the equivalent magnetizing-shell current along the singularity's edges. While the upper-edge magnetizing current repehdiegglshe-tmhateatgrpanrcoittbusedtewhceitlohpcrekolwebmieseewnttoiatrhrqyufeofororccneessitd.d22FF21r,etshueltilnogwear
3. Final Remarks
A conclusive statement on the superiority of the Ampre formulation for the analysis of the interaction beetween current-carrying wires and uniform magnets has been derived from the G-V experiments. The requirement of relative motion among both parts here, is in strict correspondence with the similar for generation action [10]. Conversely Grassmann SE -attributing motor action unilaterally to the probe wire even if attached to the magnet- fails in recognize homopolar machines' full symmetry.
The Ampre-formulation inclusion in electromagnetism programs at both intermediate and graduate levels seems a necessary outcome of this article.
This essay is ended with Maxwell's quote on the Ampre expression: \The whole theory . . . is summed
up in a formula . . . which must always remain
the cardinal formula of electrodynamics". James Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Dover (1954). [See also references 7 and 8].
\We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sucient to explain their
appearances." (Newton).

theiAr chkenlpofwulletdecghmniecnatls:assTisotanNcoer.patTaognJicoargRe &GDuafloarValverde who denitively red my interest in Weber's Electrodynamics and on the Ampre force. To Pedro Mazzoni for his mastery in experimental physics.
References
[1] J. Guala-Valverde & P. Mazzoni, Apeiron, 6, 202 (1999).
[2] J. Guala-Valverde, P. Mazzoni, Spacetime & Substance Journal, 12, N 4, 785 (1999).
[3] J. Guala Valverde, P. Mazzoni & R. Achilles, American Journal of Physics, 70, N 10, 1052 (2002).
[4] J. Guala Valverde, Physica Scripta. 66, 252, (2002). [5] J. Guala-Valverde, Spacetime & Substance, 3, 94 (2002) [6] J(D. Gecu.a2l0a0-V2)alverde, \Innite Energy." To be published [7] A.K.T. Assis, \Weber's Electrodynamics." Kluwer,
Dordrecht, 1994. [8] A.K.T. Assis, \Relational Mechanics." Apeiron, Mon-
treal, 1999. [9] K.K.H. Panofsky and M. Phillips, \Classical Electricity
and Magnetism." Addisson Wesley, New York, 1955. [10] T.E. Phipps Jr. & J. Guala-Valverde, 21st Century
Science & Technology, 11, 55 (1998). [11] M. Bueno & A.K.T. Assis, \Inductance and Force Cal-
culation in Electrical Circuits." Nova Science Publishers, Huntinghton, New York, 2001.

& Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15), pp. 238{240 Spacetime Substance,

c 2002 Research and Technological Institute of Transcription, Translation and Replication, JSC

Spacetime & Substance
Contents of issues for 2002 year

Vol. 3 (2002), No. 1 (11)

Viktor Aleshinsky. ELECTRODYNAMICS: THE CONSISTENT FORMULAS OF INTERACTION FOR A CURRENT ELEMENTS, A MOVING CHARGES AND NEW EFFECTS (1).

MichHelABMoIuLTniOaNs.IAONN

SPACETIME DIFFERENTIAL COMPONENTS (15).

ELEMENTS

AND

THE

DISTRIBUTION

OF

BIO-

P.

A.LVAWarSenOikF

aNnEdWYTuO. NPI.AVNaDreYnNikA.MTIHCES

NEW (20).

VIEW

ON

THE

NATURE

OF

BODYS

INERTIA

AND

V.V. Dvoeglazov. GENERALIZED NEUTRINO EQUATIONS BY THE SAKURAI-GERSTEN METHOD] (28).

Miroslav Sukenik and Jozef Sima. THE HYDROGEN ATOM | A COMMON POINT OF PARTICLE PHYSICS, COSMOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY (31).

Miroslav Sukenik and Jozef Sima. NEUTRON STAR PROPERTIES VIEVED BY THE ENU MODEL (35).

L.C. Garcia de Andrade. ON STRING COSMOLOGY AND DE SITTER INFLATION WITH MASSLESS DILATONS AND DYNAMICAL TORSION (38).

C.A. de Souza Lima Jr. and L.C. Garcia de Andrade. GROWTH AND DECAY OF INGOMOGENEITIES IN NEWTONIAN COSMOLOGY: SPIN EFFECTS (39).

L.C. Garcia de Andrade and C. Sivaram. TORSION GRAVITATION AHARONOV-BOHM EFFECT (42).

L.C. Garcia de Andrade. TORSION GRAVITY EFFECTS ON CHARGED-PARTICLE AND NEUTRON INTERFEROMETERS (45).

Rasulkhozha S. Sharaddinov. ON THE COMPOUND STRUCTURES OF THE NEUTRINO MASS AND CHARGE (47).

Vol. 3 (2002), No. 2 (12)
L.P. Fominskiy. TO CONCEPT OF AN INTERVAL OR BASIC MISTAKE OF THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY (49).
N.A. Zhuck. THE NEW STATIONARY MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE. COMPARISON TO THE FACTS (55). N.A. Zhuck. THE EARTH AS THE GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE RESONATOR (67). L.V. OGFruEnLsEkCayTaR,OVM.VA.GINsaEkTeIvSiMtcOh,FVT.HAE. SEURmFoAvC, EI.LNO. VGEaRvrLiAloYvE, RMW.SI.TGHeGraEsOimPHovY.SIINCTAELRACNODMAMSUTNROIC-ATION
PHYSICAL PROCESSIS (69). Anirudh Pradhan and Hare Ram Pandey. PLANE SYMMETRIC COSMOLOGICAL MODELS IN THE
PRESENCE OF ZERO-MASS SCALAR FIELDS (76).

Spacetime & Substance, Vol. 3, No. 5 (15), 2002

239

V.L. TKHaElaOshRnYikOoFv.GCROANVSITTARTAIIONNTS(8O1)N. THE COSMOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN THE RELATIVISTIC Valer(i8V4).. Dvoeglazov. SOME MATHEMATICAL BASES FOR NON-COMMYTATIVE FIELD THEORIES Rasulkhozha S. Sharaddinov. ON THE ANOMALOUS STRUCTURES OF THE VECTOR LEPTONIC
CURRENTS (86). Sutapa Ghosh and Somenath Chakrabarty. CAN THERE BE -EQUILIBRATED QUARK MATTER AT
THE CORE OF A COMPACT NEWBORN NEWTRON STAR WITH MODERATELY STRONG MAGNETIC FIELD? (88). Jorge Guala-Valverde. FEYNMAN LECTURES, A-FIELD AND RELATIVITY IN ROTATIONS (94).

Vol. 3 (2002), No. 3 (13)
Scott M. Hitchcock. THE CREATION OF TIME FROM SUBSTANCE AND SPACE (97). Vasile Mioc. SYMMETRIES OF THE GRAVITATIONAL N-BODY PROBLEM (104). Alex M. Chepick. THE CALCULATION OF THE INDISPENSABLE ACCURACY OF THE MEASURING
OF AN EM-WAVE'S ENERGY (108). Valery P. Dmitriyev. GRAVITATION AND ELECTROMAGNETISM (114). Miroslav Sukenik and Jozef Sima. ELECTROMAGNETIC INFLUENCE ON GRAVITATIONAL MASS {
THEORY, EXPERIMENTS AND MECHANISM OF THE SOLAR CORONA HEATING (118). A.M. Chepick. SUPREMUM OF THE INTERACTION SPEED OF THE MATTER (122). Valer(i1V25.).Dvoeglazov. SOME MATHEMATICAL BASES FOR NON-COMMYTATIVE FIELD THEORIES Afsar Abbas. TO QUANTIZE OR NOT TO QUANTIZE GRAVITY? (127). Angelo Loinger. RELATIVISTIC MOTIONS (129). Antonio Alfonso-Faus. QUANTUM GRAVITY AND GENERAL RELATIVITY CONSISTENT WITH A DE-
CREASING SPEED OF LIGHT AND MACH'S PRINCIPLE (130). RasuMlkAhoGzNhEaTSI.CSNhAaTraURdEdi(n1o3v2)..THE UNITED THEORY OF THE TWO FIELDS OF THE ELECTRIC AND Rasulkhozha S. Sharaddinov. ON THE TYPE OF THE SPIN POLARIZATION DEPENDENCE OF THE
NEUTRINO MASS AND CHARGE (134). Jorge Guala-Valverde. ON THE ELECTRODYNAMICS OF SPINNING MAGNETS (140).

Vol. 3 (2002), No. 4 (14)
Angelo Loinger. GRAVITY AND MOTION (145). Savita Gehlaut, A. Mukherjee, S. Mahajan and D. Lohiya. A \FREELY COASTING" UNIVERSE (152). Fangpei Chen. THE RESTUDY ON THE DEBATE BETWEEN EINSTEIN AND LEVI-CIVITA AND THE
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS (161).

240

Contents of issues for 2002 year

A. PrCaAdLhaMnOaDnEdLOS-.RPE. VPIaSnIdTeEyDc.(1C6O9)N. FORMALLY FLAT SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC COSMOLOGIR. Runi, M. Lattanzi, C. Sigismondi and G. Vereshchagin. CHEMICAL POTENTIAL OF MASSIVE
NEUTRINOS IN AN EXPANDING UNIVERSE (174). D.L. Khokhlov. SPACE-TIME IN THE CLASSICAL ELECTRODYNAMICS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF
QUANTUM MECHANICS (179). A.M. Chepick. MEASUREMENTS WILL SHOW DECREASING OF THE HUBBLE CONSTANT (181). A.M. Chepick. WHY THE HUBBLE PARAMETER GROWS UP? (183). Fabio R. Fernandez. MORE ON FEYNMAN LECTURES BY J. GUALA-VALVERDE (184). JorgeNGOTuaBlaE-VAaDlvDeIrTdIeV,EP?e(d1r8o6)M. azzoni and Cristina N. Gagliardo. WHY HOMOPOLAR DEVICES CANDISCUSSION (188). 2ND GRAVITATION CONFERENCE IN KHARKIV (190).

Vol. 3 (2002), No. 5 (15)
Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION FORMATION THROUGH THE THERMAL RADIATION OF METAGALAXY STARS (193).
Yu.M. Galaev. THE MEASURING OF ETHER-DRIFT VELOCITY AND KINEMATIC ETHER VISCOSITY WITHIN OPTICAL WAVES BAND (207).
S.N. Arteha. ON THE BASIS FOR GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORY (225). N.A. Zhuck. ANOMALIES IN MOVEMENT OF \PIONEER 10/11" AND THEIR EXPLANATION (234). Ricardo Achilles. AGAIN ON THE GUALA-VALVERDE HOMOPOLAR-INDUCTION EXPERIMENTS
(235). Spacetime & Substance. Contents of issues for 2002 year (238).

Spacetime & Substance International Physical Journal

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References

[1] F.W. Stecker, K.J. Frost, Nature, 245, 270 (1973).

[2] V.A. Brumberg, \Relativistic Celestial Mechanics", Nauka, Moskow, 1972 (in Russian).

[3]

S.W. Hawking, in: \General Relativity. Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, 1979.

An

Einstein

Centenary

Sutvey",

eds.

S.W.

Hawking

and

W.

Israel,

Cambr.

Read the Journal before sending a manuscript!

Spacetime & Substance

Volume 3, No. 5 (15), 2002

CONTENTS

V.S. Troitskij, V.I. Aleshin. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF THE MICROWAVE

. . BACKGROUND RADIATION
OF METAGALAXY STARS

.F.O. .R.M. .A.T. .I.O.N. .

.T.H.R. .O.U. .G.H. .

.T.H. .E.

.T.H. .E.R. .M. .A.L.

.R. .A.D. .IA. .T.I.O.N193

Yu.M. Galaev. THE MEASURING OF
ETHER VISCOSITY WITHIN OPTICAL

EWTAHVEERS-DBARNIFDT.V. .E.L.O. .C.I.T. Y. .

.A.N. .D.

.K. I.N. .E.M. .A.T. .IC207

S.N. Arteha. ON THE BASIS FOR GENERAL RELATIVITY THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

N.A. Zhuck.
PLANATION

.

.A. N. .O. M. .A. .L.I.E.S.

.I.N.

.M. .O.V. .E.M. .E.N. .T.

.O. .F.

.\.P.I.O.N. .E.E. .R.

.1.0./.1.1.".

.A.N. .D.

.T.H. .E.I.R. .

E. .X2-34

REXicPaErdRoIMAEcNhTilSle.s.. . .A.G. .A.I.N. .O. .N. .T. .H.E. .G. .U.A. .L.A. .-V. .A.L.V. .E.R.D. .E. .H. .O.M. .O.P. .O.L. .A.R. -.I.N.D. .U.C. .T.I.O. N235

Spacetime & Substance. Contents of issues for 2002 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238