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VRIL COMPENDIUM
VOLUME 9
VRIL AND AERIAL RADIO
VASSILATOS ·
1995

.VOLUME
9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COMMENTARY EARLY AERIAL RADIO
CAPACITY AERIALS ARTICULATE AERIALS
VRIL AND WORLD COMMUNICATIONS

SECTION
1
COMMENTARY

VOLUME 9 VRIL AND AERIAL RADIO
9.1 BLACK RADIANCE We learn of the strange nature, behavior, and response of Vril
through numerous technological sources. Comparisons among the designs of early electrotechnology are especially useful in these regards, opening the discovery of new Vril phenomena which may not be realized through the accessible qualitative learning processes. It is through examples of old electrotechnology and wireless designs that we discover certain facts concerning Vril which are otherwise never observed. An enormous fund of Vril related information exists in the very oldest radio patents. The collection of related empirical phenomena provides the researcher with an endless and necessary bibliography.
Our aim is the development of technology which, eliminating all additional energetic applications, operates entirely in Vril functions. When this condition is established in a grounded radionic system, strong manifestations of the black radiant energy appear. The black radiance is Vril.
Our summary investigation of Wireless Science begins with a re-examination of patents which are replete with obvious anomalies indicative ·of Vril suffusion. Only a complete study of these forgotten designs, and the empirical observations associated with them, can lead to a coherent discussion of black radiant energies and the potentials which they offer to humanity. It is in this context that our thesis has found historical continuity.
Qualitative science requires a fundamental reorganization of thought around the black radiance. Our discussion must focus on the most fundamental ground of being: that domain in which both the physical realms of our experience merge with the metaphysical realms. Interactions, between black radiant ground energies and inertial forces, have been chronicled in previous volumes of the VRIL COMPENDIUM. readers are directed to search the catalogue descriptions of each volume for study topics.
What is VRIL? What kind of energy is it? K~own also throughout ,the most ancient cultures under different names and titles, the black radiance is specific and most fundamental among the consciousness energies. Egyptian, Greek, Persian, or Oriental, every culture describes the black radiant energy ... the energy associated with fundamental consciousness and being. Whether in descriptive phrase or metaphor, through scientific account or mythical prose, each true culture has known of the BLACK RADIANCE and its special powers.
VRILis the name which medieval Anglo-Saxon geomancers gave to the black radiance. I have chosen to employ the term Vril because it best defines, describes, and identifies the black radiance for modern purposes of examination. Medieval Anglo-Saxon geomancers identified Vril with the smooth glowing black space which appeared atop special mountain ridges and valleys. They observed how the smooth crown-like radiance becomes constricted in the ground,

assuming a highly organized lacework of dendritic and sinuous

discharges through the ground.

Vril is densified and tightly concentrated in the ground,

where it encounters and focusses into inertial space. Necessarily

dynamic o~ behalf of bioorganisms, Vril discharges in the ground

evidence -persistent distributions. These Vril threadways may be

mapped, the black glowing current which wriggles across wintery

meadows, through valleys, and down from rocky ridges.

In its sinuous and dendritic black radiant discharges, Vril

was identified with the vital, the "virile" energy. Floral beauty

of incredible intensity was found springing up all along Vril

paths. When spring arrived, the Vril current paths were already

dark green and lush with flowering growth. Medieval geomancers

noticed that vegetation maintained its verdant nature, long into

winter when undermined by wriggling Vril threads.

The more consciousness-evocative potentials of black radiant

Vril were noticed immediately. Vril was not an energy having bounds

and limits to inert activities. Vril entered the being, effecting

healings and new ideas. Sinuous Vril trails were the "dancing"

paths from which visions sprang, the "songlines" where musical

melodies seemed literally to emerge from the ground, the dendritic

pattern which connected sacred sites for travellers. Vril trails

were renown for their clarified consciousness. Timeless suspensions

were also associated with Vril paths, along which personal time is

continuously altered.

What is Vril energy and what does it do to us? Vril is an

external manifestation of a conscious energy in which we are

permeated. Vril is the fundamental ground of being. We do not

auto-generate this energy, we absorb Vril. It is in this absorption

that we have our existence and consciousness. The radiance of this

fundamental ground is generative, creative, and projective.

Vril is EIDETIC energy, the energy of projected images. Of

what do the images consist? There are varieties which, in human

receptive ability, leads from fundamental qualities, archetypes,

ideations, ancient scenes, modern remote views, and otherworldy

scenes. Vril images become material; whose complex interpermeations

compose the experiential world. Vril is the intelligence, the

noumenous presence through which world-dioramas are generated,

sustained, and interwoven.

,

Vril emerges from its mysterious metaphysical depths, depths
7
which greatly undermine the substantial subterranean world. Those

locked into the inertial-fixation of mind ask aloud, "how can this

'be?" Vril is conscious energy, revealing vectors which are

conscious in nature. At inertially inaccessible depths therefore,

one translates out of the material world completely ... out of the

inertial lock which binds mere physical excavations ... and journeys

in degrees of freedom defined by consciousness alone. This is the

true subterranean world, the Vril radiance which underlies,

generates, and supports the ~xperiential world.

Vril is EIDETIC energy. Its thready discharge lines permit

experiential examinations of regions which lie far below and well

beyond the physical ground. In this, Vril reveals itself as the

experiential foundation. We are also shown that the rigid inertial

worldframe, so imposing and obstructive to physical movement, is a

transparent ephemeral. The ephemeral inertial worldframe can be violated by appropriate and penetrating Vril focus, the very lesson taught to us through discoveries made during the early years of electrical communication.
9.2 VRIL . MATRIX Whether veinlike in the ground or discharging into space, Vril
evidences its EXTERNAL distributions. Our normal habitation is Vril permeated with innumerable thready discharges, the Vril Matrix. Vril assumes the thready constriction discharge because it focusses into inertial space. Vril is consciousness. Vril generates conscious space. The black radiant glow is the rare terrestrial expression of pure Vril Space. Such locations are special, the persistent sacred spots known from archaic times.
Self-generating Vril emerges from unknown metaphysical depths, projecting and sustaining experiential domains. Vril generates and extends experiential space, conscious space, in directions which are determined by its own intent. Vr i 1 is a persona, not an objective force. Vril Space is structured. In Vril Space, conscious directions are unlimited in scope, expression, and orientation. In Vril space, consciousness freely moves among the organized qualities, meanings, archetypes, and worlds in continual translations. Vril Space translations comprise the familiar explorations with which children and artists are intimate.
Inertial space is a gelatinous occlusion which exists throughout terrestrial surface space. Inertial space extends out to a specific boundary, where it weakens to certain degree. Inertial space is non-consciousness. Inertial eradicates consciousness and sensation. Inertial space binds movement in volume-limited degrees of freedom, having special points of origin in fixed structure. Inertial space has been adequately described by those who chart the "world-grid"; in no way expressing the world-distribution of conscious and living energy. Vril maps achieve this feat with elegant accuracy, explaining why certain regions are either exceptionally biovital or biotoxic.
Pure black radiant spaces are not rare in the terrestrial environment. They are found as the historical sacred spots. In such locations, one senses the absence of inertial space occlusions to a degree which cannot be found in surrounding ground. The combined .absence of inertial burden on bioorganisms, and the exceptional mindstates of these radiant spots, made them highly sought by archaic sensitives and insensitives alike. One feels the difference ' at these sites. The sacred spots tell a mysterious message of triumph: the triumph of pre-palaeozoic former encounters between Vril and inertial space.
Vril works and strives on our behalf. In its permeating progress outward from every generative point, Vril contacts ·and dissolves the flow of inertial space. Inertial space responds by becoming "hysterical" and armored. Focussed to dissolve and cavitate inertial space on behalf of biological and conscious organizations, Vril generates and maintains world bio-integrity.
The Vril Matrix is forever pulsating and processing. It generates the articulate bioconscious space, having diverse strata. These strata begin where Vril contacts and assaults the static

inertial space, stratifications being the shockfronts of successive and continual dissolutions. Vril is external, independent, generative, and objective. Vril consciousness becomes subjective when organismically absorbed. The degree of Vril experience depends upon sensitivity and willingness. Will and acceptance causes greater personal Vril suffusions. One has the potential to grow in consciousness as one permits Vril currents to do so. It is in this that we comprehend the distinction among sensitives and insensitives.
The deepest world-examinations bring us into direct contact with black radiant Vril space. Though we are so intimately suffused by this vivifying presence, we often do not recognize Vril. Black radiant Vril often manifests in a semi-sensate manner, being recognized only through the clarified consciousness which it projects. Yet there are locations where Vril reaches such intensities that we experience its wonderful black radiance directly. In certain locations, this black radiance causes a visible diminution of solar light at noon, being felt throughout the body and mind as an intensification of all qualities and vitality.
Vril active groundpoints often manifest a wonderful levitational quality, one which raises consciousness and clarifies sensations beyond the familiar confines in which we live. Black radiant Vril is a real stratum, the existential world-foundation. Vril densifies in the ground, forming successive densified strata. In each of these, bioconsciousness develops and thrives. The strata progressively extend above the experiential ground surface, reaching aerial and spacic heights.
The Vril Matrix projects eidetic images. These materialize, being the process by which experiential reality solidifies. Each such projection materializes, completely interpermeated by its. own being-supportive Vril threads. In this, we recognize that experiential dioramas are indeed bioorganisms. These projected experiential dioramas blend together in their edges, forming an experiential world which appears cohesive and integrated. In truth, world experience demonstrates the multiple coordination of numerous such dioramic projections.
The projections emanate from the generative Vril strata as they progress and develop through ages of . time. Experiential dioramas blossom as glowing jewels from a deep blackness which ~seems to be nothing. The supportive Vril "worldframe" is known as the Cupula, the Tablet, the Seas, the Chalice of existence, and the ·Grail. All of these are summed in the term given by ancient writers: the KRATON.
9.3 VRIL AND WORLD-STRUCTURE Connective Vril threads permeate throughout each experiential
diorama. They form the natural communications system of the world by which experiential dioramas have their primary existence. How they develop and project sensory messages to other bioorganisms is the process of consciousness.
Anglo-Saxon visionaries traced these delicately wriggling black radiant trails throughout natural environments. Often, but not always associated with underground waterways, Vril visionaries

were prized as water-finders. Vril was visually seen and erroneously termed "mercurial waters" by ancient alchymysts. Aquavideo, the supposed visualization of subterranean waterways, is a direct sighting of subterranean Vril; only surreptitiously associated with water.
It was through personal contact with the black radiant energy that archaic minds were taught concerning the world structure. First, in simple expressions concerning the connectivity of ground, space, space objects, and mind, the archane sensitives gradually rose in conscious degree to begin developing artifices and systems. Use of the black radiant energy was given to them through powerfully received eidetic impressions.
These sensitives knew that Vril founds the world. The world is not founded in matter. Rather, it is the generative Vril consciousness which projects experiential worlds in which sentient beings each respond and inhabit. It is, moreover, in this Vril experiential knowledge that highly advanced states of being are to be obtained. Without this, there is only the limitation of inertial engines and world-models; a non-experiential bondage to restricted rigidification, tending toward death.
Our beings are primarily participants in this conscious world. It is an unlimited, unbounded world of organized structure and process. The connective means through which this consciousness is absorbed occurs through innumerable Vril threads which interpermeate our auric anatomy. Fine as hair, yet complexly patternate in nature, continuously flowing Vril currents suffuse and sustain our being.
Vril is organismically absorbed in the form of these fine pulsating thready discharges. Their messages arrive in continually endless processions. We each, as sensory recipients of this external conscious dynamic, respond to every inflection and surge in the Vril Matrix. World-generative Vril gives the communications Matrix through which world bioconsciousness is maintained. It therefore serves as a communications exchange among sensitives who are equipped to transact mindstates directly.
The archetypes of Vril Technology undergo successive, aperiodic permutations as the Vril Matrix develops. In the Cathedral System, one sees the repetitive archetypes of Vril Technology in a new transmogrification. Preserved in stone for all .the centuries to see and wonder, the Gothic Cathedrals represent ·the prevailing Vril worldstate of medieval times; a worldstate which has since then permuted into an entirely new regime of ' applications.
The world-structure has direct impact on the nature of radioelectric propagation among regions, a topic which must be completely treated with respect to its Vril parameters. Knowing the world-structure was the secret of the Templars. Their megalithic revival was not made of rough hewn rocks, as were their megalithic predecessors. Templar architecture employed the finest hewn stonework which servant-masons could produce. In their geometrized constructions, distributed along aperiodic Vril points, are hidden the secrets of medieval eidetic communications.
The Cathedral System represents the largest privately governed project since the pyramids. It is a Vril system, having enormous

implications in communications and a host of other related disciplines. The operations evoked within the Templar System remain mysterious, although their placement most certainly civilized Europe with a power not seen among other world regions. Even the Orient with its massive geomantic works, commissioned and structure~r by famed Emperors, never succeeded in achieving the mind expansions seen during the European Renaissance.
In a revolution spanning several centuries, alchymy was replaced by electrical technology, as a major focus of human endeavors emerged from Europe. The discovery of new electrical phenomena appeared with remarkably great regularity, from the late Seventeenth Century until the early Twentieth Century. Forms, never before seen, spontaneously began appearing in widely separated laboratories. In the absence of close contact and rapidly shared knowledge, electrical phenomena were slowly being developed into a technology which would come to rule academic thought.
The developments which quickly emerged contained within their assortments the very framework of modern radioelectric communications systems. Each discovery, each development unfolded in wondrous successions. First is each of these episodes came examples of phenomena, later termed "anomalous" by the developing convention of academicians. Nevertheless, these first fruits each demonstrated that a power, superior and more fundamental to electricity itself, was present and active. That power, the suffusive presence which densifies as rivulets in the ground and floods outward into space, is VRIL.
Anciently known and forgotten through countless human foibles, Vril consistently presented itself to sensitives whose magnified consciousness enabled the development of a new Vril Technology. More recently, academicians began denying the very existence of a bioconscious Matrix, eidetic earth currents, and the transmission of non-powered communications across great distances. Despite the numerous, deliberate, and complete denials of Vril Energy, Vril continually made itself known.
With this brief and very general instruction concerning Vril behavior, we may now begin to study the aspects of wireless in which Vril energy is so obviously operative. Thus it was that systems, designed to operate entirely by electrical applications, Vril-generated anomalies began plaguing .systems operators, designers, owners, and academicians alike. It was impossible for ·systems designers to divest themselves of the anomalies which kept appearing. Despite countless re-organizations, theorists were ,unable to devise communication systems which completely eliminated these manifestations. Before approaching these fascinating developments, we will now examine the major steps through which empirical discoveries re-identified Vril. Let us examine the very first recent instance where metallic aerials and grounds were devised and employed.
9.4 .. GALVAN!
Luigi Galvani observed that frog legs began to kick when placed on a copper table out under an opened storm sky. Each distant lightning flash caused the spontaneous and persistent spasms in the animal muscle. The kicking persisted for a time after

each stroke, provoking wonder in Galvani. His experiments had a deliberate first goal which, for a time, involved him in the revivification of dead animals. When small animals could not be brought back from death through these stimulations, he abandoned this phase of his work.
Noticing that frog legs could sense the lightning often before the strike, Galvani began making observations. He found that the muscle spasms occurred in the absence of visible strikes, during snow storms, and on blue sky days. He learned that it was possible to obtain greater stimulations when very tall aerial masts, insulated from the ground, were employed. To this aerial assembly he combined a copper plate, submerged in a very deep well. The combination proved to be the very first aerial terminal and watersaturated ground.
Thus, most scholarly researchers do not suspect that the true father of all aerial-ground radio systems is Luigi Galvani. We may clearly see these forms throughout the several etchings which remain of his work. The unique introduction of these structures have great archane significance. But, how did they come to appear in Galvani's work? His invention of these components remains a true wonder, for the aerial and ground had no precedent.
In the work of Luigi Galvani we also see remarkable evidence of the first primitive radio transmitter and detector. He found that the sensitivity of frog legs, in detecting distant manifestations of vital fluid, actually exceeded that of gold leaf electroscopes by many orders. In these aerial displays, Galvani saw the dynamic process of vital energy at work, for he observed these otherwise invisible displays despite the condition of the skies. In fact, Galvani was able to discern the difference between vital fluids discharged in the sky during fair and foul weather.
Galvani used the term "atmosphere" for aura. Metals emanated strong such "atmospheres" up to several feet. When grounded or elevated, these atmospheres suddenly expanded outward to several yards. Galvani and his assistants explored the sensations evoked when passing between such plates. Each metal projected its own assortment of impressions, both visceral and emotional. During the Twentieth Century, Dr. A. Abrams would show that rheostatic solenoids and variable resistors could literally tune the metals; propelling their expansive atmospheres to nearly unlimited volumes . .A few modern researchers have recognized that these distant expansions reveal and operate within a natur~l ground conductive system which is world-permeative.
Galvani, qualitatively discerning the special sense-permeating influence of all metals, discovered that metals were tremendously modified whenever grounded or elevated. Touching either grounded or elevated metal plates magnified the peculiar sensations felt among large plates of well-insulated metals. Standing between such plates, Galvani and his assistants noted the now-magnified permeating sensations of copper, zinc, iron, silver, and other metals.
Galvani saw that the metals, so elevated or grounded, became more nearly unified with their true environmental sources. This, their auric nature, was a legacy hailing from the alchemists of the Renaissance. Lowering copper plates into stone wells, and elevating

iron or zinc masts overhead, Galvani magnified the penetrating and

beneficial auric effects. In these qualitative experiments, Galvani

was rediscovering Vril.

Grasping both aerial and ground terminals in their own hands,

both he and his assistants sensed the "thrilling currents" of

bright weather days and the "deadly currents" which signalled

impending thunderstorms. Thrill shocks vivified. Deadly currents

could kill. Galvani explored and distinguished all opposed

varieties of currents associated with metals and the environment.

He maintained an opened mind concerning the various energetic

species which he had observed.

There was much life-magnifying force to the metal atmospheres

when each was properly disposed in the natural environment. But

those pre-storm currents represented incursions of another

energetic form which ruined the vital quality. This phenomenon,

this change of current nature from vital to deadly, represents the

incursion of deadly inertial currents into metals from their

external sources of origin.

In his eloquent view, this atmospheric emanation was

especially active in living things. The excess auric emanation of

human operators and animal anatomical parts could be made to

artificially stimulate frog legs. The excess energy of the

experimenter was being transferred, through metallic conductors, to

the frog legs. Manifesting itself in the sudden muscular spasms,

Galvani interpreted the activity as proof of his theory.

Gll~

focussed his observations on the anatomy of frogs and dogs in order

to precisely locate the physiological receptors of the vital fluiq,

believing that such a study might again bring him closer to an

ability to revivify dead organisms.

Galvani thus distinguished between what later became known as

Radionic emanations and Voltaic currents, refusing their reduction

into a single electrical condition. Galvani always considered his

work representative of vital energy phenomena. For Galvani, all of

nature was a flood of these "atmospheres", the radiant

manifestations of a divine ordination. Life, he reasoned was the

result of mysterious projections. These projections came from both

the sky and the earth. When they blended, vitality was conferred.

9.5 VOLTA, FRANKLIN

,

While European academes failed to reco'gnize the complete

difference between Radionic thrill shocks and electrical "deadly

shocks", certain qualitative researchers continued their

' exploration of the vivifying currents. This research pursuit later

developed into the science of Radionics, first with Reichenbach in

Germany, and later with Abrams in the United States.

Nevertheless, academes insisted the essential unity between

Galvanic currents and Voltaic currents; an erroneous and deceptive

poise. Mounting biopathic fears concerning any and all mention of

aura, soul, or psychic force, academicians drove their

consciousness progressively into more quantitative science. If

academically approved measuring instruments could not detect

Galvanic thrill currents, then the thrill currents did not exist!

This sorry self-deception eventually produced increasing

academic tunnel-vision by a steady inclination toward non-

experiential experimental methods. Along with this came the invalidation of human sensations, the disanullment of human consciousness, and the neutralization of dialogue concerning both. Now, academic science would not even discuss its own imperfections!
Having first reduced all world-forces to the three known inertial varieties (gravitational, magnetic, electrical actions-ata-distance), science began looking through its own template at the whole world; daring to suggest that all it saw could be equally reduced to forces.
Volta showed that his "electrical current" could be continually produced in special metal piles, interspersed with brine-soaked blotters. Galvani and Volta corresponded in gentlemanly fashion, though in later years Galvani confided his dislike for Volta.
Volta, Galvani believed, had simply managed to produce one of a great variety of currents; certainly not the ONLY metallic atmosphere. Galvani considered Volta's thesis an imposture. It was illogical for Volta to imagine that Galvanic currents were simply "the same" flow of current. It was equally obvious that sensations and differences in sensitivity formed the true difference between researchers; a fact which later provoked much jealousy and hatred among researchers and academes.
Galvani recognized that Volta had captured the academic ear, receiving total credit for a partial truth. Volta forged ahead, studying the electrical currents . produced by his method and discovering their painfully disruptive effects. Pain and sometimes death was always associated with this Voltaic breed of current. Galvani had already showed this. But academes ignored the vital currents!
Benjamin Franklin, whose investigation of natural electrostatic phenomena resulted in the development of several remarkable static bell-ringing devices, adhered to Volta's view of these currents. While performing his deadly work with lightning and lightning rods, Franklin developed simple signalling devices which employed the deadly currents of approaching storms. These necessitated outdoor aerials, a lethal arrangement. The accumulated electrostatic energies caused aerial-connected bells to ring and pithballs to fly apart when storms were approaching. Amusements for the naturalist, these little experimental arrangements were
1
. dangerous components to maintain for pleasure ' in one's house. More sensitive persons recognized Galvani's discovery of vital
energy rays. Whenever weather was fair, a defined beneficial effect was brought indoors through such aerial conductors. The effects were especially magnified when united with ground cables. These components, radiators of vitality, became permanent fixtures in numerous researcher's homes. Unfortunately, many scholars did _not bother to read Galvani' s warnings. These simple systems became deadly during thunderstorms. The tragic death by lightningelectrocution, of the Russian academe Richmann, brought a deathknell to all of this curious research for a great long while.
9.6 JOSEPH HENRY During the years between 1840 and 1900, several major and now
legendary investigators made thrilling discoveries in the

electrical sciences. Fortuitous accidents were made by scientific researchers who were simply and romantically "playing" in the laboratory. It was while engaged in this "scientific playtime" that the first evidences of broadcast electrical effects were discovered.
In ari experimental arrangement, designed to discover the nature of spark discharges, Joseph Henry discovered a peculiar manifestation of radiant energy (1842) • Wishing to accurately determine the direction or directions in which spark discharge currents actually moved, he devised a simple experiment to this end. His question centered on the vibrant nature of sparks. Did the charge merely shuttle between charged bodies ... or did they bounce back and forth?
He reasoned that sparks would produce a resultant magnet1c polarity in magnetized needles. Allowing the discharge to pass through such a needle would permit a measurable record of the current directions. Directions would relate to the resultant needle polarity. Each discharge produced a different polarity, indicating that the spark was an alternating phenomenon. But these effects could be modified.
It was possible to so arrange the Leyden Jar parameters as to "fix" the discharge, preventing its alternation. Moreover, Dr. Henry discovered that actual conduction of the spark discharge current was not required for the needles to be repolarized. needles, could be repolarized several feet from the spark discharge. Trying to discover the range of this strange and unprecedented electrical effect, he placed needles throughout the building in which he worked. Each time, the effect worked its power. Magnetized needles were repolarized.
Thinking that this was a conductive effect, a possible leakage through the stone of the building, he insulated his spark apparatus. Standing on glass blocks, the large Leyden Jar continued to produce its radiant effects. Dr. Henry found that the magnetic needles had been repolarized ... in the basement, several floors down below. The spark discharge had produced an amazing effect through a substantial volume ... through 400,000 cubic feet of space without connections.
He turned all of his skills toward this new a strange phenomenon, by which electrical energy had be~n transferred by a ?trong discharge through space. In trial after trial, Dr. Henry discovered to his amazement that the sudden electrical discharges obtained through large Leyden Jars could produced electrical ~ffects at a distance. The distances were impressive, ofteh reaching several hundred feet. Moreover, these energetic transfers occurred directly through several floors of oak, stone, and iron.
How did electrical force of this penetrating power effect this change through such volumes of wood, iron, stone, and air without material connections? There was no precedent for this observation, the key to a new technology. His astonished conclusion was that light-like ELECTRICAL RAYS had penetrated the floors and cellar vault.
Twenty years after this momentous discovery, an amazing manifestation of Vril inspiration produced the first modern wireless communications of signals (1862). True and deliberate

aerial signalling systems began with Dr. Mahlon Loomis. His designs and experimental demonstrations proved not only that aerial communications were possible, but that a mysterious natural energy could supply all the necessary means for signalling between distant mountaintops. While Dr. Loomis was first to employ both the capacity ~erial and ground, we do not include his work in this issue. He has been given a separate and just place of honor, since we believe that the Loomis System was a pure Vril communications device (V. 7) .
9.7 ELIHU THOMSON The penetrating power of the electrical rays, first discovered
by Dr. Henry, was the essential mystery compelling all subsequent researchers. One such experimenter was Elihu Thomson, a high school instructor. During the year 1872, Elihu Thomson conducted a series of experiments in order to more closely examine the development of electrical sparks from a large induction coil.
He noticed that the sparks from his coil visibly and audibly intensified when one of the high voltage terminal wires was accidentally connected to a large metal table top. Wishing to further intensify these strange effects, Thomson connected a wire from the other high voltage terminal to a cold water pipe nearby. This being done, the spark discharge become completely different in nature. The loud crackling white threads were fluidic and powerful, an appearance which he had not previously seen. The arrangement soon manifested another phenomena for which he was not prepared.
Touching a metal cabinet handle, insulated in the midst of its wooden board, Thomson received a sharp shock. Perplexed by this, he look to see whether or not some accidental electrical connection had been made with the experimental apparatus. This being impossible, he tried the cabinet handle again, receiving the same sharp shocking sensation.
Now he walked around the room, touching the insulated metal objects with a penknife blade. In each case he perceived a strong and continual spark discharge which took the form of a whitishviolet fluidic stream; nearly identical to the induction coil
spark. At this point, he was completely astonished. Here was a
phenomenon by which all the metals of the room were being charged without visible conductive connections.
Not completely realizing the full impdrt of what he was observing, he wished to see the extent of the charging effect. Walking down the hall, he met Elihu Thomson, sharing with him the observation. Together they went through the building, floor by floor, touching metal objects with the penknife blade. In no case were the resulting sparks diminished. The amazing phenomenon brought them as far as the school observatory, where an astronomy teacher was informed of the experiment. In the dark, they ~ach beheld the steady sparks which could be drawn from the metal tube of the school telescope; a remarkable manifestation of radiant electricity
What Thomson had accidentally produced were the effects which Joseph Henry had observed nearly thirty years before. Because Dr. Henry used frictional generators to charge his Leyden Jar for single discharges, he could not have enjoyed the full extent of his

discovery. The induction coil, which owed its existence to Henry's discoveries, was employed by Thomson in a novel manner. The arrangement had somehow combined characteristics which had not previously been obtained, fortuitously producing a steady barrage of explosive sparks such as those which Henry had developed.
It w~~ the special characteristic of these sparks, as opposed to others, which had in them the power to release such energetic effects. The experiment, being performed with other arrangements, did not succeed to produce these radiant electrical effects. Once again, ELECTRICAL RAYS had been generated, a phenomenon which required another twenty years before their full potential was utilized.
9.8 GROUND SYSTEM ANOMALIES Anomalies were inadvertently revealed when telegraphy enjoined
the ground. The employment of double end-grounded lines brought inexplicable effects which appeared as electrical manifestations. All too numerous in their diverse kinds, and all too numerous in their varied varieties, these electrical anomalies could not be adequately explained by conventional models of electricity. When academes decided that theory was at fault, they attempted remodelling their existing science to incorporate the anomalies. This failed on a number of occasions, provoking the wrath o.f frustrated theoreticians. The final outcome of this time period was the total denial of such events and anomalies: the eradication and disqualification of the phenomena.
Throughout the COMPENDIUM we see how Vril, the black radiance, interacts with grounded artifice. More specifically, we have endeavored to show the high degree with which black radiance actually interacted with the components of electrotechnology. When once those components were incorporated in ground connection, the anomalous manifestations arrived daily. There were those astut~ observers who recognized hat, contrary to the official denial of phenomena, another energetic stratum had possibly been contacted.
This energy was one whose effect in the telegraphic and telephonic systems was to aperiodically evoke anomalous functions and malfunctions. Spontaneous electrical generations baffled telegraphers, and delighted system owners. It was possible to operate telegraph systems without batteries ~or years in certain locales. In addition, there were equally fascinating accounts of ~phenomena whose characteristics exceeded those accounted to electricity. Perceptual phenomena noted in telegraph stations •included time-space distortions, strong and consistent eidetic impressions, and telepathic episodes.
Thus, certain operators noticed that their own familiar perceptual state was considerably modified when communicating with specific stations during the night. Lost time, distorted space, fixed visual impressions, and an ability to know why the other operator was calling ... as well as the exact nature of their message, were some of the niglit "hauntings" with which telegraph operators became accustomed.
Operators were quick to recognize each of these rare behaviors in systems, being equally quick enough to share them amongst their ranks. Theoreticians were slow to begin entertaining them,

considering them the mere banter of the telegraph "servant class". Their experiences could not be adequately approached by the conventional science.
Hailing our rediscoveries of the Vril presence into this curious period, when electrical anomalies plagued grounded systems, we find our answers arriving with elegant exactness. The primary communications mode through which Vril communes with us is EIDETIC: a combination of primary images and absorbing visceral sensations. One often feels as though they are present at the site with which they are conductively connected. This bilocational sensation of being simultaneously at the transmission site and the reception site is common among Vril phenomena.
Eidetic whole images are transmitted through very thin Vril threads. These threads follow conductive lines when necessary (Hieronymous, Drown). The phenomenon by which threads become whole images has been experimentally examined. It explains the numerous phenomena of bilocation and remote viewing which persistently occur in specific ground locations. It explains why certain remote viewing agents required grounded light bulbs as a gazing tool. Vril enters electrical systems, automagnifying its presence. Eidetic energy is especially enlarged when encountering low pressure bulbs, argon also acting as a facile eidetic agent.
Vril is constantly flowing in pulsations from and across the ground. Grounded metallic structures absorb and pass these Vril currents. Grounded systems · enjoin Vril directly. They do not require electrical additions for their operation. Grounded Vril saturated systems operate in the EIDETIC MODE, their primary mode and function. Neither electricity nor code is necessary if the operators allow themselves time to recognize the forgotten perceptual mode, eidetic vision being the lost sentient language. Through eidetic communications we learn of the fundamental worldlanguage once again, the mode through which all worlds dynamically interact.
Ground objects thus serve as a source of eidetic currents, a source of eidetic viewing. Is it not curious that natural instances of remote viewing best occur near well grounded locations? Eidetic images may be thus absorbed directly through proximity with ground objects. In such a case, eidetic discharges project into the recipient from the grounded object. Through dir~ct contact, one may . absorb and experience eidetic processions with great ease. The process is best facilitated through implementation of grounded radionic instruments.
Ancient methods learned that stone marked Vril points gave especially strong eidetic impressions on touch. It was gradually realized that iron rods served this function with far greater power and clarity despite season or hour. Copper provides a softer interface between subterranean Vril strata and the recipient. _One finds this eidetic flow completely absorbing, being required to allow oneself to believe once again that the imaginal flow which enters through closed eyes is indeed real: The various behaviors
which Vril currents display are an important tutelage for the serious student. Only when these principles are learned through personal experience, may one begin to make progress in developing Vril Technology.

Ground communications systems, whether wire or wireless, conduct the eidetic imagery . which becomes the meaning of each message. This notion is foreign to most thinkers, who imagine that code and meaning necessarily arrive as a single unity. We have discussed the instances in which eidetic impressions and code are actually sundered. Instances are rare but not absent in which code is perfectly received .•. while their meanings are vague and indistinct.
Contrariwise, there were instances in which meanings proceeded in absence of coded transactions. Operators could always identify both the gender and operator when called to the receiving station by the message alarum. Each of these abilities is impossible, considering the fact that telegraph keys are digital switches. Lacking sensitivity to provoke such coded "inflections", academic science could never evaluate these telepathic instances on the basis of "touch" or "tenor". For this, and other related reasons, several dignitaries of great renown were moved to a necessary examination of psychic phenomena (Crookes, Lodge).

9.9 VRIL WIRELESS

The astounding achievements of both Antonio Meucci (V.5), and

of Nathan Stubblefield in these regards (V.7) received considerable

attention during their day. Antonio Meucci, true and original

inventor of the telephone, conceived of trans-Atlantic conduction

wireless in 1845. In his wireless method, tested across New York

Harbor, telephonic messages were impressed directly on seawater

through submerged metal plates. He conceived of large such systems,

having differentiating electrodes for maintaining the integrity of

telephonic signals across the great stretch of sea miles between

New York Harbor and Valentia Bay, Ireland.

Nathan Stubblefield, by far the greatest modern developer of

Vril System technology in numerous regards, first engaged wireless

vocal communications ... in 1872. Mr. Stubblefield publically

demonstrated vocal ground-radio systems (1906) along the northeast

coast on dates very much later . than these initial verifications of

his theories. Mr. Stubblefield worked with telephone repairmen. It

was probable that his original experiments focussed on broken

telephonic lines, whose continued operation remained "anomalous" ·at

the time. He may have been the first pers.on to deliberately

.implement a double-grounded telephonic line, impressing his voice

in the conductive ground.

Receiving these vocal signals at ever

great distances through an equivalent double-ground, he may thus

' have been first to recognize the principle of conduction wireless.

Despite these beginnings, his work took on a completely different

aspect when an intriguing discovery was made. Somewhere during his

initial research in conduction wireless, Stubblefield discovered

that commercial amounts of an electrical power could be drawn

directly from certain groundpoints ... indefinitely. This constituted

his famed "earth cell", or geological cell, patented as a

"battery".

Scholarly examination of his work leads to the inexorable

conclusion that Stubblefield may not have been working with

electricity as we know it. The characteristics of his results

support this belief. His ancillary developments included: drawing

usable power from the ground to drive motors, light special arclamps, heat cabins, detect intruders, and receive very distant signals. His lamps and motors ran "cold", never burned out, and required no replacements. The same was true of his earth cells, which were never deactivated and which never corroded.
His final life's work, a process for "extracting, storing, and rebroadcasting sunlight", cannot be comprehended through electrical models. This last accomplishment of Stubblefield was never mentioned in any research reports, although all too numerous witnesses testified of the "brilliant light which flooded out of the hillside".
After his death, his emaciated body was recovered. The cabin laboratory was a shock for those who entered, having been filled with large strange and alien apparatus. Warmed by a mysterious heat source which rippled with continual heat "from two shiny metal plates", this Vril system maintained its vigil over his body in silence. It was known that his systems could be kept in continual operation for weeks without ever a concern for deactivating or replacing them. Corrosion or decay was never a problem, his famed ground receiver not being an ordinary electrolytic cell.
After the stunning achievements performed by Meucci, by Loomis, and by Stubblefield, systems operated entirely through pur~ Vril applications, others began questioning and elaborating on their methods in "more conventional terms". As each of these used means which did not employ electrical currents as we know them, both the academes and designers were in developmental checkmate. Mr. Stubblefield represented a major mystery to those of his day. His own "scallywag" partner, A.F. Collins, developed a counterfeit system which employed heavy storage batteries and carbon button telephonic transmitters. Many erroneously imagined that this represented the Stubblefield system.
Most disconcerting is the fact that most designers and theoreticians continued their frail attempts at telegraphic wireless in absolute ignorance of what had been achieved in Murray, Kentucky early in 1872. Mr. Stubblefield actually performed his original experiments at this early date, developing and protecting his discoveries until 1898.
It is remarkable testimony to the ignorance of enlightened convention that the scientific and inventive co~unity actively and . aggressively pursued inferior experimental investigations . throughout this time period. Even when Mr ·. Stubblefield had revealed his great work to the world at large, there were those who ' stubbornly and ignorantly delved into less worthy wireless telegraphic ventures. Nevertheless, both Telegraphy and Telephony were about to be dissolved in Wireless. In this new venture, Vril would again make its first astounding forays. But first modern indications of these realities came through the pioneering work bf Nathan B. Stubblefield.
Misconceived and inappropriate, a group of "electrical inventors" soon emerged. Having the duplication of Stubblefield's demonstrations as their goal, they each designed and redesigned each other's devices. None however, achieved the results which had been surpassed decades before. The wonder of a supernal energy, a dream-like non-electrical energy, had been implemented by persons

such as Meucci, Loomis, and Stubblefield. This energy was transduced into pure manifestations of light, heat, motion, and vocalizations; possibly without the intermediate by-products commonly termed "electrical".
Theorists studied the electrical characteristics of Telegraph and Telephone systems with great intent, hoping to find the "conventional reality" within the lost legends. Overshadowed by Meucci and Stubblefield, an emerging inertial technology strengthened its hold on designers and experimenters alike. Vril technology seemed again to recede below ground, the dream current returning to its metaphysical sea.
Each subsequent electrical discovery, after these stellar achievements, became the redundant recapitulations of a more decadent technological phase: pure electrotechnology. It seemed that few minds were capable of grasping the significance of the great and previous empirical summit. Stubblefield had already drawn usable power from the Vril Matrix.
Performing experimental work with electrical applications now, several confluent discoveries were subsequently made which surreptitiously enabled wireless communications. These discoveries began with those of Tesla in regard to ELECTRICAL RAYS. It was through this means that the first aerial electrical transmissions were made. Others applied the various kinds of electrical irritations (alternations, oscillations, and impulses) directly to the ground in order to wirelessly "transmit signals" by EARTH CURRENTS.
During this time frame, Dr. Amos Dolbear (1886) developed and patented a radio communications device whose propagation mode is yet problematic for examiners. Using large closed-capacitance for his aerials, Dr. Dolbear was finally able to engage vocal communications for several more miles than stated in his initial reports. Careful examination of his design reveals an impossible configuration, one in which no "spark discharge" actually occurs. Telephonic communications are applied directly to the induction coil transmitter by way of a carbon button microphone. Vocal transmissions were empowered when the apparatus was poised on stone. Complete records on Loomis, Stubblefield, and Dolbear may be found in COMPENDIUM Volume 7.

9.9 TESLA

The system which combined telegraph lines, subaqueous, and

subterranean segments had successfully operated for years. Early

'subaqueous and subterranean conduction telegraphy employed rapidly

impulsed currents, power provided through combinations of induction

coils and magnetic reed vibrators. Capable of transmitting strong

telegraphic signals through long courses of dry grounds, wetlands,

and water bodies, inventors began investigating the functiori of

circuit interrupters. It was subsequently discovered that high

voltage signals of shortest possible duration travelled to greater

di'"stances.

·

Experiments in England showed that high voltage interruptions

were effective in conducting signals across channels and large

tracts of ground (Preece, Hughes, Branly). Circuit vibrators and

other such interrupters were therefore investigated in numerous

laboratories with great interest. Heinrich Hertz developed a series

of experimental spark apparatus through which he claimed it

possible to transmit spark energy through long distances. Taken as

proof of the Maxwell electromagnetic wave theory, Hertz ·was

heralded with great honor.

.

Nikoi~ Tesla complained that he had been unable to reproduce

the results claimed in Hertz's classic report. Moreover, Tesla

claimed the accidental discovery of a spark-related phenomenon

which differed completely from those of Hertz. Nikola Tesla wrote

a curiously unquoted article in which he describes the discovery in

detail. Most scholars ignore the paper entirely.

Tesla felt a strong shock when manually interrupting a high

voltage DC generator. Believing that he had received the shock

through his hand, he insulated himself entirely from the apparatus,

and performed the experiment again. Again he received the shock, a

prickling tension which struck ·him like a shockwave. Devising a

mechanical interrupter, he was able to gain distance from the

system enough to study the effect. When this was done however,

Tesla could not escape the shock effect. Irregardless of his

distance from the system, the shockfield continued to propel

irritating tensions throughout the laboratory space. Here then was

real evidence .... strong evidence ... for the transmission of

electrical force through space. The question now centered about

Hertz. Why were his effects so very different ... and weak?

Tesla studied the literature, finding only the two incidents

of Henry and Thomson in corroboration. Tesla examined the designs

of Hertz, discovering between the two experiments fundamental

differences in electrical values. In effect, Tesla stated that he

had discovered a means for releasing electrostatic RAYS. Hertz had

only succeeded in releasing electromagnetic WAVES. Tesla stated

that waves could not possibly be useful in transmitting power

through space, being the weak equivalent of a heat loss. Tesla

proved that electrical rays w·ere the strong force, reliable and

penetrating. True wireless transmission of power could only be

effected by such rays.

Tesla's statement was the announcement of a new electrical

force, a force which did not find place in the collated fund of

academic phenomena. Although the empirical records of Henry,

Thomson, and Thomson stood as heralds of this radiant electrical .force, few but Tesla engaged it seriously. Em~irically discovered

and defying the fixed icons which ruled the electrical engineers,

Tesla's announcement was neither comprehended, accepted~ or

endorsed.

Requiring very specific and stringent electrical parameters

for their liberation, Tesla described the means for interrupting a

high voltage field to release electrical rays.b The effect required

a unidirectional electrostatic voltage of high initial value. This

being very abruptly interrupted, a new electrical force appeared

throughout the surrounding space. Emanated through the spark

discharge proper, these electrostatic rays were penetrating and

potent. Tesla found that even copper shields did not block their

passage. Placed in oil, the rays propelled a gaseous stream which

deformed the oil for several inches.

Tesla discovered that high voltages could cause an effective

separation between charge carriers and electrical fields. The sudden charging of a conductive line produced a sudden electrostatic field expansion. This field penetrated space with irritating force, a release of electrostatic rays. By causing the
a irreversible abrupt expansion and collapse of an electrostatic
field in. specially constructed high voltage discharge device, Tesla states that a new electrostatic force emerges.
The liberated radiant electric force shoots beyond the bondage of charged particles, penetrating to great spatial distances with apparently undiminished force. If the interruptive process is continuous, the release of electrostatic rays is continuous. The process had nothing at all to do with magnetic fields or magnetic inductions. All the energy was contained within the expansive electrostatic field.
Generators of these rays had to employ unidirectional impulses. Tesla clearly describes the precise parameters required in order to prevent the instabilities of alternations and even o~cillations from occurring. The effects which Henry and Thomson each observed were very rare events. The release of these rays required very special circuit values, parameters which preserved the unidirectionality of the electrostatic field throughout the transformation process. Instabilities, whether of alternations or of certain oscillations, would ruin the effect which he claimed to be the greatest secret of electrical force.
Moreover, Tesla discovered what would happen if this ray energy was intercepted by other conductive bodies. Single-layer solenoids behaved as peculiar capacitors in this space. Expansive electrostatic rays were not conducted as charge through the solenoid windings. Electrostatic rays focussed over the solenoid surface. Tesla found that these surface-focussed electrostatic rays expand over the coil surface, travelling over the windings as an ever increasing voltage pulse from end to end. This greatly raised voltage could not be accounted by the familiar magnetic transformer proportion.
Measurements on the coil condition gave surprising results. The coils gave a zero-amperage reading, evidencing the fact that charge carriers are blocked from moving through the windings. In their absence, the electrostatic field actually travelled over the coil surface. The explosive propagation of th~se rays produced an ever-increasing voltage rise with increasing coil resistance. Tesla · stated that it was possible to produce voltage transformations of ten thousand volts to the solenoid inch, factors which informed , engineers that a truly new electrical force and inductive principle had been discovered.
Tesla describes the ELECTROSTATIC TRANSFORMATION of impulses from low voltages to high voltages without the inductive effects of magnetism. He publically demonstrated the Tesla Transformer, a true ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTOR. During his Royal Society Lecture, Tesla gave the exact function and parameters required to reproduce this new device. Tesla took great pains to prove to his listeners that his Electrostatic Transformer did not function because of magnetic induction. He equated the electrostatic inductor to a pulsating Wimhurst Machine of far greater power.
These sharp and penetrating rays were found to flood the

surrounding space whenever directed. They could be used to produce extremely high voltages through equally great distances. In his series of new discoveries with the electrostatic rays, Tesla had found a means for directing and collimating the radiant electrostatic effects which had so irritated him in his accidental discovery: It was during this lecture that Tesla first describes his preliminary experiments with the transmission of electrical power without wires, a feat which greatly out-classed the mere transmission of radio signals.
Toward the very last portion of his lecture, Tesla demonstrated the delivery of intense power to a vacuum lamp. The small and focussed ray field produced a very intense light at a good distance without wires. At the very end of his talk, Tesla predicted the use of geoelectric energy, the transmission of electrostatic ray power, and the establishment of radiosignalling stations across the world.
No longer would he trifle with polyphase of high frequency alternating currents. In fact, each of his subsequent patents reveals his clear distinctions among the three current forms ... alternating, oscillating, and impulse currents. But, why had Tesla entered this field of study at all? Alternating Current was his original forte, was it not?

9.10

MARCONI

Professor Augusto Righi devised a scheme for producing very

powerful spark impulses across very small capacities, insuring a

rapid intermittent break of any applied electrical tension. Righi

staged his discharge capacities to obtain extremely rapid

oscillations and alternations, immersing his central discharge gas

in paraffin oil. This permitted a more powerful field absorption

before spark breakdown. The oil bath blocked the discharge until

the field strength reached some exceeding strength, whereupon it

suddenly discharged its full charge with sudden impulsive force.

Righi was one of those who observed and corroborated the

findings of Tesla. Radiant electrostatic rays were distinctly

different, and ultimately more penetrating, than the weak waves

obtained when alternations were generated. As Tesla had first

described with detail in his famed forgotten article (Electrical

Experimenter, 1892), Righi recognized the spec~al power inherent in

impulse discharges and oscillations.

'

This oil bath discharge gap was the improvement which allowed

. Dr. Righi to produce very prolific electrostatic rays. In fact, by

· placing his small oscillator inside a copper pipe or paraboloid,

Righi succeeded in projecting electrostatic rays to a great

distance.

The several components which appeared in the Marconi Radio

System, operated before the English military, were noticed by the

academicians who had conceived and invented them. These Royal

Society members viewed Marconi and his device with quiet,

conservative, and contemplative scorn. His induction apparatus was

that of Ruhmkorff. His coherer detector had been developed by

Eduard Branly. The high frequency discharge oscillator and harmonic

tuning circuits were clearly invented by Lodge. Combinations of

coils and capacitor plates were derived from circuits invented by

Hertz, Edison, and Thomson. High frequency air-core transformers, capacity aerials, ground connections, and the various tuning components had been invented by Tesla. Beam ultra-shortwave transmitters employed Righi oscillators and the parabolic reflectors of Hertz.
First to admit that he had derived electrical components previously discovered and developed by others, he selectively gave credit to predecessors when it suited his pride to do so. This weak defense was a necessity, since Morgan was watching. Many of the legends from whom he "adapted components" were . still living. By now, his extensive financial base permitted him to cover the numerous suits which were .justly levelled against him. But Marconi was ever the victor in court. He now fared with the rich of the earth who gave him strong aid in these bureaucratic matters.
One person made several casual public statements concerning his own priority in radiosignalling systems. That person was Nikola Tesla. Tesla had his proof for this priority in a great number of his patents. In each, we see the entire marconi system prefigured. Tesla was not interested in royalties. He was already a millionaire. Tesla simply wished to enunciate his views on creativity and invention. The question dealt with true revelation and true patent licensure.
Contrary to historical reference, Marconi was never able to produce anything truly creative. Statements made by Marconi, each thoroughly prepared and rehearsed, forever revolved about the "nature of invention" rather than on true creativity. He also pandered the tired phrases concerning inspiration .and perspiration. Obviously he had not the former, nor the latter. He was simply a good promoter of the ideas and inventions of others. Unfortunately, he had neither the gratitude nor the decency to include those from whom he so liberally and openly.stole.
Though brazenly implementing several of Tesla' s patents, Marconi refused to acknowledge Tesla at all. Perhaps this was part of the picture. Marconi demonstrated his bureaucratic connections in several court cases. In each court decision, the Marconi claims were persistently upheld. Apparently it was important for Morgan that Marconi's wireless become the success which history records.
9.11 ACROSS THE ATLANTIC Limited in his viewpoint of natural science, Marconi never
strayed far from the academically accepted world of electrical science. He always "played the science game straight", so that ' ridicule and the possibility of social unpopularity would never come near him. He knew well what happened to Tesla. New and penetrating radio theories would not be heard spouting from his lips. Irregardless of the true glory of the legend, Marconi chose to avoid Tesla's legendary route of scientific martyrdom.
The necessary test of his radiosignalling system, the "acid test" was imposed on him by his principle investor. Before seizing the financial profits away from ordinary submarine telegraphic or telephonic exchanges, Marconi had to prove the ability of his waves to cross the Atlantic. To this end he was given funds with which to conduct a demonstration of the practical transmission and reception of signals ... with clarity. The system had to bring the clarity and

speed which submarine telegraphics afforded. High speed telegraphic transmission was the central feature toward which his efforts would be focussed.
The transmission sites were chosen on opposite sides of the North Atl.antic: at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia and at Poldhu in Cornwall, · England. There, enormous aerial structures were erected. Four huge multi-girdered masts were first erected. Upon these, an immense inverted pyramid of cables were strung. Work on these aerials proceeded slowly, weather conditions prohibiting more rapid deployment of the necessary transmitter components.
These sites were chosen because of their obvious close geographic poise, Marconi anticipated that the first signals would be relatively weak and furtive. Until the proper parameters for transmission and reception were chosen, there would be wide room for failure. Transmissions were to proceed from Cornwall, being received at the Nova Scotia side. The famed signal was a simple Morse Code "S" ... the three dots. This signal was to be continually broadcast in hopes that the others in Nova Scotia would receive them. Telegraphic affirmations would serve as confirmation of signals received.
The weather raged against his efforts. The high winds finally destroyed the Nova Scotia reception aerial. With time working against him, Marconi decided to try a simple method for launching an aerial wire to greater altitudes than the original pyramid afforded. Taking a lesson from Mahlon Loomis, Marconi had large kites constructed and outfitted with copper screens. These were sent aloft, using the very winds which destroyed his aerial towers in order to give him aid.
Many doubt whether Marconi •s signals were ever received, believing that Marconi faked the results in order to stall .for time. They assert that his stall technique was based on· his confidence that a strong signal could eventually be transferred across the Atlantic, but that the initial attempt had failed. Nevertheless Marconi's wave signal, clouded with noise and static common to its mode, was indeed received across this stretch of the North Atlantic. It was transferred, but not through the power which was provided by his transmitter on the western shores of England.
Indeed, when one considers the initial power and aerial geometry which Marconi utilized in his famed trans-Atlantic experiment, one concludes mathematically that the signals could never have been detected at all! Calculations show that the Marconi signal could never have been transferred through the power levels which were employed, the effective output energies of his spark generators being insufficient to produce an intelligible wave signal across that distance. How then did the signal manage the cross-over? It is here that we may begin again recognizing the antagonistic roles which Vril and electricity play in the environment. It is also through these antagonisms that the resultant effect of communicated intelligence, of meaningful dialogue, occurs between distal communicants. But, contrary to conventional explanations of radioelectric signal exchange, we will learn the true function and limit of electricity during the communications process.
The electrical irritation of Vril results in a production of

. electrical charge wherever the willful reception of signals is established. The appearance of electrical charge does not occur as a result of "passages through" conductive media or spaces. The appearance of electrical charge occurs "in situ"; in the very site where signals are willfully received.
In this first Marconi arrangement, electrical irritant was applied within the aerial Vril stratum. The received signals were fraught with the static. Static is evidence of a Vril metabolic process by which the electrical charges, applied at the transmission site, are actually destroyed through dissolutions. Being thus digested in the Vril Matrix, transmitted charges vanish in the Matrix. If charges are dissolved in transit, what then remains to be communicated?
Conventional explanations for empirically observed phenomena do not account for details such as these. Being aggregate phenomena, producing whole effects, one tends to overlook the individual portions of a dynamic natural expression. This leads to faulty conclusions and erroneously constructed models. When convention endorses the model, it becomes rigidified in utility. New ideas therefore become impossible to convince. The elegance of qualitative science consists in its ability to appeal directly to sensation and subjective reality, its primary base. One might therefore allow a rare moment of personal sensation during scientific analysis, seeing the fundamental Vril dynamic which generates every other effect.
Grounded systems are absorbed in the natural black radiance of the district. When groundpoints are properly chosen, these grounded systems become especially Vril radiant. Human operation of these systems permits the addition of extra sentient impressions on the primary radiance. The radiance is articulate, a complex pattern of messages, therefore the addition of minor patterns is possible. This is the signal portion which is effectively and losslessly exchanged between distant geopoints.
Meaningful communication does not consist of coded transactions. Coded transactions ride the meaningful component, a black radiant Vril signal which has the nature of consciousness. Meaningful communication consists of auric modulations. Modulations of the human aura impress the exchange of eidetic impressions on the Vril Matrix. Whether telegraphic impulses or vocal expressions, it is the auric component which enters system qomponents and makes ·patterned impressions on the primary Vril radiance. When such a system is electrically "flashed", radiant Vril patterns suddenly , expand in an antagonistic fury which becomes hazardous.
Thus, based on confused understandings, wireless electric signal transmission spawned a world-revolution. But such distant communications were not new for the archane societies who developed the megalithic system. The greatly expanded and enraged radiant Vril patterns spread throughout the district on behalf of bioorganisms. The response is one intended to preserve life in the presence of irritations which kfll. Vril messages are patterns, there is no transference of matter. Vril floods the world, therefore its pattern changes are instantaneously received. Placement throughout the district and region determines the degree of Vril pattern receipt. Specific groundpoints are imminently more

in contact with the pattern changes, being connected in the

naturally established Vril threadways. Pattern changes are

fascinating fluidic exchanges of black crystalline states. These

"pattern flickers" have been observed, and preserved in experiments

which employ chemical emulsions.

Vril. ground currents feed each bioorganism in a district on an

individual basis. The needs of each bioorganism is thus contained

in the Vril flow, an enormous and complex pattern which can be

intercepted and studied. Whenever this patternate flood of life-

generating expressions is disturbed, Vril overwhelms and asserts

its presence. Electrical applications into the ground or aerial

strata produces this antagonism. Many individuals yet preserve

enough of their sensitivity to feel these irritations throughout

the environment. The pattern transactions occur because they are

intended to preserve the diverse bioorganisms which depend on Vril

currents for their individual existence.

Because of this Vril response, electrical disturbances are

lost at the ground site; being absorbed and dissolved by the Vril

Matrix. There are interstitial phases in this Vril digestive

process during which "other kinds of electrical species" thus

appear. These, however observed by experimenters, have nothing to

do with the Vril pattern exchange. They only serve to prolong the

expansive Vril antagonism until local inertial space is cavitated

enough for the patterns to be exchanged. While unidirectional

impulses best serve in this antagonistic relationship, raising Vril

states to enormous pattern potentials, any electrical application

will effect the distal pattern transaction.

Marconi had not yet learned the secret of choosing proper

"related" geological points to insure the most powerful signal

transactions. Points such as these evidence the eidetic

connectivity of distant locations, producing both eidetic and

subsequent electric charges in situ. Fixated on the relatively weak

electric charges produced by the primary eidetic energies which are

exchanged, operators failed to tap the primary power at work in

these systems. It was a fact that certain geological locations

exchanged radiowave signals with impossibly great power. After

shifting from ray to wave signalling apparatus, Marconi came to

rely upon such means in order to boost every fraction of output

power.

.

We will see that additional patterns whi~h are impressed on

Vril ground messages are actually unnecessary, since these contain

information on all bioorganisms in each area. Ancient sensitives

' learned how to read these individual eidetic signals, obtaining

detailed information on sentient-related activities in their own

districts and others. One may, through the artifice of specially

constructed ground components, gaze into the Vril dialogues which

occur in particular districts. We may select, with certain

strength, very specific locations from which eidetic currents can

be drawn to our apparatus.

In all of this we peer into the anatomical communications of

the Vril Matrix, learning that eidetic ground messages comprise a

mysterious dialogue. This dialogue engages diverse Vril strata,

districts, and regions. It is a wor l d language of vast and mostly

unintelligible import with which more archane designers and

priestly operators were familiar and adept. Indeed we will find that the archane technology of certain civilizations, now shrouded in archaeological misrepresentations, was wholly devoted to Vril and its naturally mystifying dynamics.
9.12 WORLD WAVE COMMUNICATIONS In misdirected efforts to improve his wireless system, Marconi
inadvertently converted his transmitters from ray to wave systems. Shifting engineering emphasis from the electrostatic rays to the transverse waves produced weak transmission signals. This necessitated higher power outputs at the transmitter sites, requiring mammoth generation and transformation facilities. One may examine the photographic record of this cross-over from rays to waves.
The change provoked Tesla to make several penetrating and derisive comments ("True Wireless"). Tesla later made an appearance at the New Brunswick Marconi Wireless Station in New Jersey. In this revealing portrait, the very soul of Tesla may be seen. Disgusted with the unnecessary waste of effort and outraged by the display of bureaucratic control, we glimpse a rare moment in Tesla's biography. According to Tesla, the employment of electrostatic rays is the only mode for transmitting power and signals.
Marconi, unaware of the real difference between rays and waves, chose the weaker electrical mode by which to forge his path of development. Apparently ignorant of Tesla' s true discoveries and claims, Marconi continued to develop and perfect only Hertzian wave technology. These, the inefficient detritus of electrical currents, could never fare against Tesla's power transmitters and receivers. They unfortunately became the radio convention, forever contaminating the academic mind with strongly rigidified conscious bias. The fundamental difference between Tesla Radio and Marconi Radio is so vast that their names should never be placed on the same page. Rays exceed waves in power, penetration, speed, and clarity.
The electrostatic ray, potent and penetrating, did not disperse with distance. Furthermore, the very ground itself intensified the rayic signals as they were conducted. It was observations such as these which encouraged Tesla to attempt accreting natural ground energies when employ~ng impulses of very 'specific duration and repetition. Despite all of the natural and anomalous clues, Tesla had not yet come to realize why this was so, , yet believing that the communicated exchanges entirely took place in the "electrical medium".
Most of the early wireless stations were prolific radiators of electrostatic rays, with only minor performance in the Hertzian broadcast mode. This is certainly evident in the capacity aerial systems. This would also explain how it was possible for Marconi to transmit and receive intelligible signals across the Atlantic with the equipment he devised. Marconi thereafter advanced the Hertzian Radio scheme, utilizing ineffective transverse waves to signal across space.
Great difficulty attended both the generation and detection of these weak transverse waveforms. Yet, the indomitable Marconi

pushed his system into the gargantuan realm to avoid failure. Only

the exceptional donations and continued support of Morgan could

grace this failure-bound venture with success. Certainly no such

patron ever appeared to freely grant aid to Tesla, whose electric

rays far outstripped Marconi Wave Radio as a threatening power

broadcast ~ystem. Marconi Stations were enormous in both cost and

size. For their hugeness, the overall performance was

disappointing. Marconi Radio Systems were slow in telegraphic

transmission and weak in reception. In this light, we must recall

Meucci, who had already demonstrated VOCAL transmissions across

great volumes of seawater in 1845.

Some Marconi systems were so large that their reception aerial

were placed miles away from the transmitter aerials in order to

isolate the receiver. Induced transmitter signals could destroy the

sensitive detectors to which operators gave careful attention. The

original radiofrequency generators which Marconi employed were

based on the hydrogen-arc systems of Valdemar Poulsen; mammoth

constructions which were actually plasma magnetrons for the VLF

range. More elaboration on the hydrogen arc generators has been

included in (V.ll).

Worldwide Hertzian mode VLF engineering developed around

Marconi. Through his sponsorship, Marconi is responsible for

proliferating the "weak wave" method. Marconi radio-transmitters

exalted the Hertzian waves, requiring exceedingly long aerial

structures. Impossible to construct out of solid metal plate,

capacity aerials were out of the question on every consideration.

The patents of Lodge and Fessenden reveal the enormous size

required to achieve signal potential with these aerials and their

excitation generators. Tesla had already foreseen these foibles,

having developed and perfected diverse means for achieving true

electric ray transmission (Dollard) .

Marconi began fabricating the articulate line aerials from

wrapped cables. Marconi's famous bent-L design utilized heavy

copper cables, with length reaching one mile or greater in some

instances. The numerous cables of this array fanned open from their

generator site, stretching in parallel cadence. Powerline

technology in a usable form, a new means to employ almost-obsolete

investments and secure the monopoly. Who else could afford the

construction of these sites but Morgan?

.

The Marconi transmitters utilized VLF alternations, originally

provided by large arc generators of enormous output. He eventually

relied entirely on harmonic alternations, the pure sinewaves which

· are now equated with radio. Indeed, most engineers are incapable of

recognizing the existence of other electrical species, dispelling

the reality of electric rays and their role in effecting vastly

improved radio-communications.

Because of their enormous

physical size, Marconi stations were useful only in slow-speed

telegraphic communications. It was said that the first stations not

only "lit up" during operation, but "rang like a gong" with each

keyed application of power. So much power was consumed that the

structure required a long discharge period between keyed

applications. While Marconi stations resembled huge capacitative

"waveguides", directing Hertzian alternating radio-energies out to

the sea, it is probable that a great deal of his success was based

on the extension of his effective aerial length through seawater conduction. The extensive copper ground screens, laid on the seafloor for a mile or more, has recently been found off the New Jersey shore. These screens greatly outdistanced the overhanging aerial structure of the famed "bent-L".
Thus,· recognizing the inherent failure of this scheme, Marconi resorted · to trickery of the lowest kind. His first VLF transmissions were not entirely aerial or "radio-radiant". Using forgotten principles of Antonio Meucci, Marconi frequently employed both conductive geological structures and seawater channels in order to propel signals through seawater in the old conductivewireless manner. The excessive power levels consumed in Marconi transmission sites, and the equally excessive amplification systems at Marconi reception sites, were never necessary in Tesla's electrostatic ray signalling system. Electrical shockwaves, delivered through space as sharp pulsating electrokinetic rays, delivered all the required power by which Tesla drove his electrical receivers.
These early high power VLF stations were not unlike bluntended, or terminated power stations. These were eventually constructed so as to launch VLF waves along geologic orientations. With their special trellis-like arrays, these enormous arrangements ran for nearly a mile or more straight out into the seawater. Brute force was the only means for sending the lossy alternating waves out across the northern sea, submarine geology being an often necessary means for conducting more. power. Marconi trellis aerials (Bent-L designs) operate because of Vril parameters, albeit inefficiently. Vril gathers upon the trellis as do vines, thickening near the aerial roots, and spreading outward toward the opened sea. Vril surges between electrical pulses, impelling the actual message, context, and comprehension previously thought inherent and homogeneous in radio signals. Vril vectors occur along the trellis conductors. The applied electricity causes the meaningful signal to greatly expand, flooding the surrounding space with its characteristic black radiance.
Underlying the entire fanfare was the fear that Tesla might find a willing party in the government sector, one which would implement his power broadcasting designs and wreak havoc in the Morgan Electric empire. Content to occupy himself with the inferiority of an electric wave transmission mode, Marconi ·developed huge stations which required the sizable fortunes of his patron. Morgan, ever the invisible promoter, willingly endorsed his , controllable and predictable "star inventor" for various reasons. One of these included the fact that Morgan was heavily invested in powerline technology, a failed ploy to entrap Tesla and Westinghouse into a parasitic partnership.
Any designer can clearly see that Marconi stations obviously employ the powerline technology which Morgan had previously monopolized in order to ruin Tesla. The corporate monopoly of Marconi Radio by Morgan is difficult to ignore. No longer in control of "his Radio", Marconi found himself being pressed into service by patron and academicians. Morgan had caught him, pulling him into the net. Marconi no longer had the pleasure of relaxing in seclusion. He had to produce, and produce new designs with great

deliberation. Now he was irked into serving his own creation, a

task which taxed his temperament beyond all ability to endure.

Marconi began sailing away. His yacht "Elettra", purchased at no

small price considering the day, was a self-imposed exile lasting

for several decades.

Betw~·en honors ceremonies, press interviews, and business

meetings, · Marconi sailed. On occasion he would land and appear at

new station dedications, all arranged by others to whom he had

delegated authority. Marconi Radio Stations were subsequently built

across the globe, principle sites being chosen on the basis of

strategic access to main cities. The process was now a formula.

Building Marconi Stations was now a methodic engineering exercise.

The Marconi stations were huge and costly, often extending several

miles into the sea. Tesla high frequency alternators, long

abandoned by Tesla himself as inefficient, began appearing in

Marconi Stations.

Designs which had been appropriated by Alexanderson of RCA,

they were now heralded as the "greatest achievement in modern radio

engineering". The media publications, owned and operated by the

patron, was churning out the popular mythology which stimulated the

minds of young and hopeful engineers. Throughout this time period,

Tesla had already perfected generators for the pure production of

electrostatic rays.

Nevertheless, Marconi required these mammoth alternators in

order to replace the large Poulsen Hydrogen Arc generators, for

which he paid handsome royalties. Though paying him legendary heed,

most young experimenters had no empirical connectivity with the

systems which Tesla had outlined. The contaminated press had

already found ways of misrepresenting the Tesla method. It remains

so to this day, where ray technology is completely derided as

"impossible". Tesla Radio systems were compact and portable,

utilizing the very smallest spiral-loop capacity aerials. The

equivalent Marconi Station would necessarily be several football

fields in length!

Tesla's mocking indictment of this wasteful broadcast method

has been reprinted ("The True Wireless") in which he shows that

Hertzian VLF resembles the radiation of radio "heat" rather than

the more powerful electrical ray mode which he himself discovered

and developed. Marconi had completely misunderstood the very _patents which he adopted from Tesla, interpr~ting every text as

· harmonic high frequency AC.

·

Ignoring Tesla' s established principles of power transmission,

· Marconi focussed all of his attentions on establishing world wave

communications. Developing the lossy systems which Tesla

continually upbraided as "inefficient and excessive", a determined

and well-financed Marconi established a world-girdling radio

communications "circuit". This system eventually was absorbed into

the growing RCA megalith. Tesla later appears in a revealing

photograph which was taken at the dedication of a Marconi station

in New Brunswick, New Jersey. He is clearly displeased for a great

number of reasons. Einstein and Steinmetz represented two forces

with which he battled all his life: abstraction without experience,

and the bureaucratic prostitution of scientific expertise.

9.13 SHORTWAVE

An avid experimenter and worker throughout his life, Marconi

was a far more successful businessman than a discoverer of new

electrical phenomena. But in this latter realm, he was not entirely

without merit or ability. Because of his exceptional technological

access, . ~arconi soon discovered several natural phenomena

concerning the frailty of Hertzian propagation. This was a fact

reported by Tesla a decade before.

Both Marconi and Fessenden each individually found that

diurnal changes in VLF signal strengths often varied by the minute;

a dangerous fact for stockholders to know. VLF signals were found

to vary as much as eighty-percent between specific hours of the

day. This inefficiency equalled lost revenue, a closely guarded

secret until the remedies were found and quickly implemented.

Marconi's method was not to back track his work as far as Tesla

would have insisted: a complete revision of radiant mode.

Marconi found that trans-Atlantic communications suffered in

transit along east-west directions, while north-south trans-

Atlantic communications came through with great power. This mystery

led him to the creation of special world-wide "radio circuits";

signal paths which were rigorously tied to their geological

features and best suited for signalling throughout the day.

Therefore, while Marconi continued to explore the possibility

of creating newer forms of radio apparatus, he nevertheless

maintained a strict confinement to the Hertzian principles. He was

always implementing and absorbing the newest electrical devices

when their adaptation to radio could improve the Marconi System.

His wife divorced him. Marconi sought refuge in a freedom which

kept him an exile at sea.

Sailing the world for years in his yacht "Elettra" he finally

managed escapes from patrons, media, business, and his own over-

inflated image. Here there was peace and tranquility, solitude and

space out under the night skies. Marconi returned to his boyhood

days where, content to read and experiment, he re-sought his own

lost trail. Too much too soon. The old "rapid rise, rapid demise"

story which fame at an early age brings.

His desire to make transoceanic travel safe and troublefree,

succeeded in perfecting a number of directional beam transmitters

and detectors. With these it was possible to pippoint a ship on the

ocean with great precision.

·

He joined the world wide effort, along with other researchers,

to investigate the electrical layers found above the clouds. Even

as Mahlon Loomis suggested some fifty years before this work,

Fessenden, Heaviside, Kennelly, Austin, and many others

investigated the mysterious ionosphere. Aimed toward the sky,

shortwave beams were seen as echoes bouncing off the "ionospheric

ceiling" of an immense world-covering cavern.

Marconi patented a shortwave beam signalling device early in his

career (1897). It was nothing more than the very oilbath spark

generator of Righi placed in the bent copper parabolic mirror of

Hertz.

Marconi eventually explored short and ultra short Hertzian

waves which were best suited for ionospheric bouncing. Bouncing

these signals off the ionospheric "cavern ceiling" made long range

communication possible. Ever the master of adaptation, Marconi utilized the new and special vacuum electron tubes in both his shortwave transmitters and receivers. Marconi later developed new Hertz ian designs, adding first a telegraph key and then vocal modulators to the simple miniature dipoles. Through these previous fundament~l inventions, Marconi developed and popularized short Hertzian waves for public access, opening the world of HF, VHF, AND UHF to amateurs.
With his shortwave transmitters and receivers, Marconi successfully saw the popularization of radio, a reality of which he had not previously dreamt. The gigantic bent-L aerials now were miniaturized, so that amateurs the world over could intercommunicate freely. Marconi offered his UHF transmitter to the Vatican, perhaps to ameliorate his by now seared conscience.
The work, no longer a simple upper room experiment with components belonging to others, became an excessive burden set on him by his principle investor. Constantly clamoring for the perfected systemology of instant world-communications, Marconi had to deliver the patron his due tribute in continual successions. This meant that he had to consistently conceive and develop original inventions; a task which proved beyond the ability of the experimenter-turned-diplomat. The romantic dream was long gone. The upturned nose, so evident in Marconi's earliest portraits was now replaced by a deeply embittered condescension. Jaded and despoiled, Marconi died with honors.
By far not the first to conceive, investigate, develop, and proliferate radiosignalling apparatus, Marconi commercialized a form of radio which should never have been proliferated. Masking the true wonder and world-potential represented in Teslian Technology, Marconi had been heralded far too long as "the father of radio". Reaching back before the Century's turn, Antonio Meucci first demonstrated the exchange of telephonic signals through seawater. Mahlon Loomis first demonstrated the exchange of telegraphic signals across 20 miles without wires or batteries. Nathan Stubblefield exchanged vocal signals through the ground without batteries.
The tragedy of a young and zealous experimenter has not been completely told. His dreams were not completely satisfied. Having been promoted so quickly, his mind and creativity were actually prevented from achieving that true originality by which legends are "truly marked. In his life, this prize, this inner blessing never blossomed. The rose, frozen in snow.
9.14 CAPACITY AERIALS It is indeed indicative of our poverty in Vril knowledge, that
we often require the contrasts afforded by radioelectric effects on the Vril environment. The study of wireless components grants revelatory understandings by way of such contrasts. Activated by electrical means, these components produced uncommon Vril states in regions. w·ith these uncommon Vril states came equally bizarre effects in both the inertial and perceptual experiential realms. The reappearance of long lost geometric forms, now becoming useful in wireless, was a strange sight for those who watched designers setting them up toward the zenith.

Ball aerials, inverted cones, cylinders, and coaxial radiators are a few of the designs which comprised the early working radio systems. With these capacity aerials it was possible to transmit and receive signals far in excess of ordinary applied power. Ordinary inspection of the patent texts reveals an abundance of radio anomalies associated with these designs. We should perhaps first begin by comparing the nature of signals and signal qualities reported with capacity aerials before even considering those yielded by familiar Hertzian wave-antennas. Are there, in fact, any capacity aerial deficiencies or even superiorities in some aspect of signals transceived? Capacity aerials are simultaneously immersed in a number of very different energy forms. We may simplify the numerous interactions into a basic antagonistic conflict between inertial space and Vril space. Early wireless operated solely in the VLF range. Both the nature of radioenergy generators and the aerial symmetry determined the nature of signals transmitted. Early wireless relied on spark generators, the quality of which determined the nature of energy delivered to the aerials. The radiant propagation of electric vectors from capacity aerial symmetries provokes serious questions. The source energy becomes converted in the capacity aerial, becoming an altogether diverse radiance. A patternate Vril radiance.
Though large in surface volume, none of the designs is possessed of sufficient geometric length for true electric waves to reach their necessary power maxima. Lacking the required expansion length for waves, such capacity surfaces cannot radiate a complete fund of energy which may be delivered by harmonic radioenergy sources. Capacitance aerials cannot effectively radiate Hertzian vectors. The impossibility of radiating electric waves from these metalloforms is matched only by an equal impossibility of using them to detect such waves. Yet the experimenters found empirical evidence for the overwhelming success of these designs.In fact, most of the working patent designs should not work at all as transmission aerials. As empirical discoverers and patent examiners found to their own amazement, these structures do in fact succeed in radiating signals of all kinds. From Teslian perspectives, these capacity aerials may be thought as Ray Vector radiators, thus explaining their often misunderstood performances.
In capacity aerials, each applied charge of the harmonic cycle translates into an electrostatic pressure. · Charged with each · alternation and incapable of expanding through sufficient dimensional length, the capacity aerial functions as a semiefficient radiator of electrostatic field lines.
When supplied by appropriate spark discharge apparatus, potential was made available for the production of Teslian electric rays. In fact, the only electrical mode by which aerials of these empirically over-efficient designs may operate is through the electrostatic rays which Tesla rediscovered. Only electrostatic rays operate in the coaxial capacity aerials of Marconi, where transverse waves could never stir a detectable current. Proper implementation of these capacity aerials required the abrupt high direct voltage without alternation which Tesla perfected.
Since capacity aerials operated with electrokinetic ray modes, energies which are not presently believed to exist by all but a few

academicians {Aspden, Jefimenko), we are led to examine the particular details by which meaning and message are conveyed through rays. The only electrical function which operates in these designs is the Teslian electrostatic ray, prolifically produced along with the transverse waves when high voltage sparkgap oscillato~s are employed. This meant that powerful unidirectional rays could antagonistically radiate along with the system-suffusing Vril radiance. But coded signals do not compose a meaningful signal. Electrostatic rays, however potent and penetrating, do not complete meaningful exchanges from such systems. Just how then does a capacity aerial conduct, transduce, and radiate the meaningful signal component at all?
Coded and acoustic signals are separate from the meaningful component comprising the sentient message. No sentient exchange, whether through code or acoustic signal, comprises a meaningful exchange. The meaningful signal is supplied by Vril, being the ground of consciousness; that from which all our intentions and urges to communicate arise. All communications systems therefore necessarily enjoin the Vril black radiance. This was the very observation made when systems of this kind were directly connected with the ground.
To comprehend the manner in which eidetic currents radiate from electrified capacitance, we must first understand how these eidetic currents permeate radiosystem components from the ground. Capacity aerials which are highly insulated in the electrical manner, are not insulated from ground or aerial Vril strata. Oil immersions do not insulate capacity aerials from Vril, which densified in oils (Fessenden) .
By extending thready black radiant arcs from the ground, Vril suffuses through circuit components. This process is selective. These Vril discharges then rise through the capacity aerial, flooding its solid metal surface with bioactive patterns. Vril pattern currents naturally and aperiodically pulsate from ground to space through such capacity aerials before electricity is ever applied. The natural flood of Vril eidetic images slides over and through solid metal surfaces with an ease dependent on metal composition, disposition, overall surface geometry, and placement.
We see that Vril suffuses capacity aerials completely. Natural eidetic signals, the district prevalent Vril energies, flood the metallic volume with black radiant currents. ! In addition, every impressed eidetic signal flows into the capacity hood, both pattern populations blending on the surface. Before electrical applications ' are engaged, there exists a defined procession of eidetic currents from these capacity aerials. These may be shown through radionic examination of both the metal hood, the ground, and distant locations. Thus, without applications of electrical power, on can exchange meaningful eidetic signals. This is the very means· by which archane megalithic technology operated. But what is the overall effect of electrification? What happens to the natural flood of throbbing eidetic currents in the aerial capacitance? r
Electrification of the metal hood causes a sudden expansion of
all the conducted Vril currents, a bioassertive automagnification of enormous and hazardous intensity (Reich). In the process, Vril signals are magnified beyond their normal limit (Kilner, Abrams).

One may often see the black radiance which surrounds a large electrified metal surface. What is the true and fundamental "capacity " by which materials and material forms are distinguished?
The sheer volume of metal and surface area of capacity aerials offers adequate absorptivity of ground suffusing eidetic images. This eideiic absorptivity is the only and fundamental CAPACITY of a metal surface, the ruling function which is dimly perceived as "electrical capacity". These absorbed eidetic currents are also conducted in aperiodic pulsations, flowing from ground to space by means of the metal surfaces. Radiating through the metal hood, eidetic images flow from the aerial metallic surfaces directly into the aerial Vril stratum. Distributed across the hood surface according to Vril geometric principles, learned and used by Templars, eidetic image currents are thus directly applied from this terminal.
The aerial Vril stratum is a vertical symmetry of black radiant threads which proceed from ground to space, interspersed with connections which spread in all directions. It is understood that, while these black threads may be objectively and visually sighted in certain circumstances (Watson, Corliss), the aerial Vril stratum is one through which experiences flow. The Vril world is one which generates and defines world experience. It projects the world as we know it. Access within these strata permit transcendent cooperative modifications of world structure.
The Vril aerial stratum is especially densified over central Vril powerpoints, long known for their direct link with special stellar or planetary foci. Once absorbed into the capacity aerial, the eidetic currents are unfortunately violated by electrical irritations of the most dreadful degree. High voltage irritations can kill bioorganisms. What then do they do to the resilient Vril currents themselves?
The spark generator used along with a capacity aerial determines its efficient projection of electrostatic rays. The efficient degree to which the capacity aerial is therefore electrostatically shocked determines the degree to which it functions best as a conjugate ray transmitter. Conjugate ray symmetries are always engaged in Teslian devices (Dollard) . where electrostatic rays maintain a continued Vril expansion for long distances.
1
Any electrical irritation which traverses ,the Vril strata will cause a corresponding enraged expansion response in the Vril domain. This occurs even when alternations are sued. Only the electrical presence is required for this dynamic to take place. In turn, the degree to which the capacity aerial projects electrically enlarged eidetic threads horizontally from its surface determines the degree to which subsequent measurements of "skywaves" and "groundwaves" are observed in meters. Intriguing enough, electrical lines alone do not long proceed in horizontal attitude with respect to ground. How then do we explain their powerful long-range effects?
Tesla found that capacity aerials did not produce better transmission with increased height. Nearness to ground always produced stronger signals, the densified Vril ground stratum supplying the suffusive eidetic articulation. Eidetic articulati ons

determine the exchange of communicated signals. Only a population of true long-range horizontal eidetic discharges could account for the long-range performance of these smooth surface aerials.
We must follow the eidetic flow through such a system. From the ground, eidetic currents of enormously magnified pattern potential~ are radiated into the aerial stratum from the capacity surface. Vril threads flow outward, proceeding along the rays of electrical irritation in long horizontal discharges. The capacity aerial radiosystem is an eidetic fountain, employing a powerful (unnatural) inertial irritant to achieve its function as a communicator. Most horizontal eidetic discharges follow the irritating raylines until they reach ground. Some maintain their horizontal attitude, self-generating their processions in a remarkable display of bioprotection. This accounts for some remarkable "skywave" performances of capacity aerials.
According to Tesla, the capacity aerial system did not require the excessive aerial size or elevation above ground level which Marconi lavished upon his wireless systems. Thus, capacity aerials can function in both transmitting and receptive functions while close to the ground. This intriguing feature leads directly to a discussion of black radiant strata and Vril current interceptions.
Situations in which weak electrostatic charging occurs result in more ground-reentrant eidetic projections. This reentrance produces strange local static phenomena. Not dispersed as charge from the metal hood, static charges appear throughout the surrounding grounds to some degree. Representing the cavitation of ground absorbed inertial space, by projected eidetic threads, a large volume of ground suddenly manifests the spontaneous electrical charging effects noted by early experimenters. This charge is electrically measured as an increased "groundwave", but is not radiated energy. It is eidetic dissolution of inertial space, with a resulting population of fragments known as "charges".
In their direct application to the aerial Vril stratum, eidetic currents are modified by the "geometric spread" which the conductive surface dictates. Capacity aerials are direct connections in the aerial Vril stratum, eidetic exchange terminals. Electro-magnified eidetic signals are thus propagated through the very specific Vril routes of a district. Their patternate . processions communicate eidetic information throughout the district. All those who engage the Vril point distribution in specific locations are then privy to the flood of eidetic ' information. Those who know the mappable relationships among widely dispersed regions also know that they can receive such eidetic information in specific points of their neighborhood. Vril points may be enjoined through nonelectrified radionic apparatus.
The geometry of a capacity aerial modifies both ·the
absorption and projective directionality of eidetic image currents. Vril responses to hood geometry modifies the manner in which ground discharges will extend up into the hood. Specific geometries block or enhance eidetic distributions throughout the metal hood surface. Eidetic thread distributions do not conform to dielectric field distributions noted with diverse metal plates and solid forms, they influence dielectric fields.

Eidetic threads avoid negative curvatures, but will focus upon them when multiple negatively curved metal layers are stacked. Their discharges most powerfully spring from sharp edges, but are noticeably suppressed and complicated by stippled or decorated edges and surfaces. Singular metal masts always project strongest eidetic current from their terminal points, but collections of vertical metal masts always densify eidetic currents at right angles to their lengths. Vril tunnels into material distributions and layers, a fascinating topic which was mentioned in regards to the formation and densification of mineral layers (V.4).
Spherically shaped metallic surfaces produce eidetic distribution through which eidetic patterns may be discerned. These patterns are not uniform homogeneities, evidencing the complex details of wood grain patterns. Nevertheless when spherical metal shells are layered, one within the other, an astonishing focalization of all eidetic currents occurs. This focussing effect draws all of the surface absorbed eidetic currents into a singular constriction. The site where this constriction occurs is dense and active, always influenced directly by spaceward bodies: by the sun and moon, as well as by stars and planets. In this regard, it was not uncommon to read reports which correlated radio effects in capacity aerials with space conditions. Clearly astromantic in effect, RCA later employed an individual whose sole task was to chart planets and thereby predict best daily frequencies of operation (Nelson) .
It is not difficult to arrange small empirical tests of these eidetic effects. One may even appropriate the larger metalloforms found in architectural structures to make simple verifications of these statements. Large forms which are equivalent to the skypointing coniform capacity aerials of Fessenden, have been closely examined in these regards. These aerials project intense eidetic energy spaceward, the verticality or angulature of which is always modified by local Vril conditions. The verticality from such skypointing coniforms varies with season and time of day, being powerfully influenced by both solar and lunar positions. The resultant eidetic projection varies from zenith by as much as forty-five degrees, seeking out mysterious fixed points in space.
Such vertical projectors visually manifest black radiant Vril threads at certain times. But these threads often become whitened ·in hue as the day progresses, being the black thready sites where inertial space is actively dissolved and absorbed. The ,characteristic white inertial sheaths have been previously discussed (V .1) . These coniforms are noted for their prolific production of electrostatic charge, an anomaly erroneously associated with ordinary aerofrictive charging.
These coniform aerials engage and draw entrant space energies in a remarkable manner, eidetic signals being modified directly from Vril strata beyond terrestrial environs. The ascending and greatly intensified Vril threao thus touched into deep Vril space strata. The immediate descending response instantly occurs in numerous widely separated points simultaneously. Through the implementation of this unusual capacity aerial design, spacedescending eidetic imagery of an excessive power was received in

greatly distant locales. This certainly occurred in locations for which no successful electrical explanation can be given.
Dielectric discharges spring from sharp edges, not varying from this general response even when encountering the baffled plates of air capacitors. But eidetic discharges prefer tunneling through 6bstruction, automagnifying as they process. Eidetic discharges obey responses whose tendencies always insure the proliferation of biovital states. This strictly behavioral response reveals the intelligent nature of Vril, which resists the simplicity of rules applicable to dielectric field distributions. One is driven to a necessary empirical examination of eidetic fields when studying and discussing metalloforms.
Other qualities of eidetic content are altered by the metals (elements and alloys) used, and the ability of the geometry to diffract certain eidetic components. Highly convoluted metal surfaces diffract portions of eidetic currents, magnifying or suppressing qualities which exist within specific currents. Capacity aerial geometry collectively modifies the meaningful content of Vril signals. Concentrated toward specific ground Vril receptor points, one receives eidetic messages along specific meandering Vril lines. Thus, while electrical vectors may be entirely absent at furthest ranges, strong eidetic impressions with or without attendant infinitesimal electric charge will be detected.
While most engineers are content to accept the notions that each of these capacity aerial systems operate as Hertzian radiators, there are in fact other designs which should not radiate waves at all. A number of these appeared in an article written by Professor Righi. From Righi's drawings we see a great number of puzzling capacity aerials, some of which could not possibly radiate Tesla Rays or Hertzian waves. The numerous huge coaxial hood~and­ shield assemblies should not operate as either transmitters or receivers in either ray or wave radiant modes. How did these transmit the empirically ascertained signals?
Close examination of Marconi "coaxial aerials" and their accompanying text only intensifies the paradox. One realizes that these large metallic forms could never project radio energy through their heavily shielded capacity to be a transmitting aerial. As a receiving aerial, no external radiowave energy should ever , penetrate the capacity shield. The induction o~ detectable current would then be equally impossible. This aerial design should not operate, either as a ray or wave transmitter. With neither rays nor ' waves permitted entrance, how were signals exchanged? How then did these designs operate at all?
It is first very evident that all electrical functions were blocked completely. The only signal which could effectively penetrate the Faraday barrier would be a non-electric one, a "neutral radiance". There is only one energy which, being preelectric and communications-fundamental, could ever bridge the electrical barrier. Coaxial capacity aerials grant us a remarkable opportunity to realize unexpected Vril behaviors, clearly operating in the eidetic mode. Any electrical charges observed in operation of these designs is fortuitous, being manufactured "in situ" by the radiant or entrant eidetic Vril threads.

9.15 ARTICULATE AERIALS Articulated aerials for wireless communication first emerged
from the laboratory of Nikola Tesla. These designs were compact spiral loops of incredible effectiveness. In both transmitting and receiving electric rays of various pulse lengths, Tesla claimed their efficiency was unusually high. He began replacing several capacity aerials of his own construction with these pancake spiral and loop aerials. Tesla discovered their remarkable effectiveness in receiving both his own ray transmission and those of Hertzian rich Marconi VLF signals, publishing these reports well before the turn of the century.It was with these that the world's very first high power ray transmissions were made.
Marconi and Fessenden later produced extremely large articulate aerials of their own design. These dissected the solid geometries of previous capacitor aerials, producing combinations of cage-like forms. These arrived in quick succession. In typical fashion, Marconi and Fessenden constructed enormous articulate aerials. In Marconi's typical style, some these were necessarily miles in length. Marconi consistently ignored what Tesla stated concerning these designs. In truth, the articulate aerial revealed that a truly living exchange medium was somehow involved in radio signalling.
Tesla first believed that electrostatic ray components would permit a strong signal reception with negligible aerial dimension. But these facts do not adequately explain how such a small and compact flatwound spiral is so successful in receiving the very much longer waves of ordinary broadcast bands. When the mysterious handheld ferrite-core loop aerials later proved to have anomalous operative efficiencies, physicists were not provoked into giving renewed explanations for the empirical anomaly.
How a non-Hertzian aerial can act so powerfully in receiving such long waves as used in ordinary AM broadcasting finds no satisfactory answer in theory, and remains conspicuously unaddressed. But let us question the convention once again, evoking academic reprisals of the most unenlightened variety. How does a small and compact spiral loop manage the powerful reception of VLF signals? It would seem that the employment of ferrite core material actually magnifies VLF signals, serving as preliminary signal amplifiers. In what manner does such a passive material, assumed to have somewhat lossy characteristics, actually boost an incoming . signal?
The best an earliest answer to many of these questions did not , emerge from the convention. It came from one whose words were held
in disrepute. Tesla believed that the effective communications exchange medium was gaseous in nature. He observed steady gas-like streams emerging from wires which conducted unidirectional impulses of high repetition. He also observed thready gaseous emanations in highly exhausted bulbs when electrified through high voltage tension. Tesla assumed that these threads communicated their content without loss of detail when traversing space. But gases, irregardless of their dynamic state or density, cannot transact the uninterrupted consistency of whole images through thready currents.
Such patternate integrity is certainly not found in the

aetheric "ultragas", as Tesla first assumed when making his preliminary discoveries. Furthermore, the finer wire spiral loops began evidencing a wonderfully powerful receptivity which seemed self-intensifying. That aerials, having articulate detail, could greatly outperform smooth surface capacity aerials became somewhat mysterious. No engineer ever launched a theoretical model explainin·g this fact. Increased articulation, increased detail should bring only needless electrical complications in overall impedance. Shortwave radio designers later sought simplicity, which the smooth surface metal aerials afforded. But here was an anomaly.
Articulate, convolute, woven matrix ... each exceptional such aerial became more highly transmissive or receptive with increased convolutions and woven complexities. Electric rays would not require such convolute complexity for reception. One sees numerous early examples of working geometric aerial forms which could never be considered as feasible by contemporary engineering conventions. Electric waves would never operate in such geometries. The increasing complexity of the articulate aerials approached organismic detail. The manner in which highly articulated aerials magnify messages-in-reception indicates something of an organismic nature in the transmitted signals themselves.
Articulated aerials, whether wound or woven in design, had no place in conventional theory. It became apparent that transmitted signals also increased in clarity when special woven or even convoluted geometries were employed. These strange organismic designs were incredibly effective in both transmission and reception. This then inferred the existence of spatial variegation within signal pulses, a volumetric patterning. Neither electric rays nor electromagnetic waves partake of such qualities.
In the efficient operation of articulate aerials, we therefore see evidence that an energetic carrier or medium. One perceives that organismic patterns of a highly complex nature may be exchanged among widely distant signallers only through an equally articulate medium, capable of sustaining, preserving, and exchanging details of incredible complexity across vast aerial spaces.
It is clear that, in reception, the energies which impinge on articulate surfaces of appropriate capacity are not electrical in nature. The energies which render intelligible transactions are eidetic, absorbing these thready discharges along flatwound pancakes of various volumes and dimensions. We see that Vril , behaviors far exceed those observed in electrical phenomena. The detailed manner in which Vril phenomena respond to and cooperate with material structures reveals a bioarticulate nature. Aerial wire-wrapping designs cannot effectively operate except in the Vril mode.
Vril is an articulate expression, a living entity possessed of deeper functions. Those with which we have had to describe thus far are vegetative characteristics. There are other characteristics which match and then greatly exceed sentient potential. Vril process covers the entire range of consciousness, from infrastructure to permuted structure. Vril exists in a selfgenerating stratum of its own, building upon the established

firmaments of its own achievements. Vril has characteristics of both growth and processive continuity from which vegetation finds its nature. Plant growth and vegetative process indirectly reveals certain Vril dynamics.
In transmission, one recalls that electrical applications are merely used to provoke antagonistic reactions in the primary substratum, Vril. Magnified into enraged states, Vril eidetic currents discharge into aerial or ground Vril strata. Previously suffused with ground emergent Vril currents, the empirically designed aerials evidence cooperation with certain Vril characteristics. One characteristic which Vril manifests is growth. Vril threads emerge from the ground and grow into grounded artifice like vines.
Vril suffuses all grounded communications systems, emerging and extending as gradually growing discharges from the ground. In this behavior, one recognizes the nature of floral growth, that which the medieval geomancers called "VIROLE ... a woven bracelet" and "VRILLE ... to weave". Flooding the huge components of wireless radio (massive aircore inductors, giant plate capacitors, magnetic arc dischargers, and immense aerials), Vril behaved as climbing vines do in spring. When encountering ground supportive extensions, vines surmount and gradually propagate. Vines add matter to their preliminary shoots, growing and cross weaving their own extensions until the vascular bundles become like cable.
Articulated aerials are Vril trellises. Coil aerials corroborate what we know of Vril. New facts are obtained by examining how Vril and the Vril stratum behave in other natural situations. We may best learn how coil aerials and other articulate aerial designs operate by noticing the response of vegetative process to trellises of various forms and symmetries. The growth characteristics of climbing vines, ground covering ivy, and grape vines, grant us a physically tangible means for studying what kinds of responses ground-emergent Vril demonstrates. It is at once remarkable that the large articulate VLF aerials resemble garden trellises of various kinds (Marconi, von Area, Hart, Latour, Chubb, Conrad, Scheller, Chireix, et al).
There were articulate aerial forms which completely defy conventional analysis, converging from the feedline and reconverging at their terminus. Thus in a great number of anomalous behaviors, each of which corroborate the mdre vegetative Vril , behaviors, one observes that impossible aerial forms actually outperformed those longlines which Hertzian theory demanded. If we recognize that the primary operation of articulate aerials occurs in Vril parameters, then we will find that a great number of correlative facts will begin to self-organize. We can apply what we have learned concerning the true and foundational nature of communications. Relying on Vril eidetic currents to transact meaningful communications, one recognizes why loops can be so very remarkable in both transmissive and receptive modes.
Vril grows into grounded coils, climbing onto and over coils like vines. The grounded structures themselves behave like vine trellises, receiving and conducting proportional amounts of Vril threads. Each coil has a specific Vril capacity, accommodating a specific fund of flowing Vril threads. Vril is densified outside of

coils when they are electrified, powerfully collapsing back into the coil when the electrical pulse has passed. This sudden Vril collapse brings with it an increased Vril growth potential, a frighteningly magnified Vril presence which is dangerous. In this manner, electrified coils greatly magnify Vril.
As hi~torically noted, the electrical parameters of coils is related to a peculiar capacity. But this capacity is eidetic in fundamental nature. The eidetic capacity of a structure determines its resultant electrical capacity. Vril will load coils and other such symmetries when properly grounded. The very wire or cable upon which or into which Vril is provoked to flow will determine what general sorts of Vri 1 responses may be expected. Eidetic accretions discharge from absorptive capacities, bringing with them their continuity of meaning and message directly through the underlying ground contact. The only rational means for assessing exactly what Vril will do is through the old empirical method of making scale models.
Layers, braids, weaves, each represent conditions into Vril will articulate. Vril threads accrete upon stippled, scored, and crenelated surfaces with great affinity. Vril self-magnifies as it encounters resistance, multiplying the eidetic capacity in an equivalent volume with which smooth solid surfaces cannot compete. Articulate aerials produce Vril magnifications by the simple resistance response, being natural geometric magnifiers. Thus naturally assuaged into a magnified state, Vril begins its communications in strengthened degree long before electrical irritations propel its rage response throughout the district.
The articulated aerial forms (whether woven, twisted, or braided) absorb Vril in the normal fashion, but so resist Vril absorption that it self-magnifies while flowing through the structure. One has added advantage then, the eidetic signal component being already magnified by natural process. Less input irritation is necessary to produce strong resultant meaningful communications. Crenelated and scored wires each effect more of the Vril automagnification process. These aerials produce both much greater Vril outputs (natural eidetic transactions), and inputs (natural eidetic receptions) .
Let us imagine for a moment that these metallic lattices, these trellises, were equivalent to a smooth solid metal surface. ~ Let us also allow that the means by which they operated with such effectiveness had origins in a charging process. If each of these aerial forms operated by some such charging process, why then did equal metallic volumes of different weaves or convolutions work better than their solid equivalents? In this farfetched consideration, neither wrapped nor woven aerials can be rationalized.
Let us also assume that small sections of these designs were individually receiving ray or wave transmissions. The collective sum of induced currents could spill out into the connective ends. If these same connective endlines functioned as absorptive capacities, the inductions could occur in small linear dimensions until they reached their maxima. This might permit a large resonant induction to take place, producing detectable signals. But how then to explain this mechanistic scheme in designs having cross-

connections ... effective short circuits? It becomes very clear that certain other such convoluted
designs could never be explained by the above two mechanistic schemes. The wavering trace of "Zig-Zag" aerials receive strong signals in VLF, broadcast bands, and shortwave. The signals they receive ca·n neither be ray nor wave in nature. "Zig-Zag" aerials do not funct1on in electrical parameters, being a paradox of wonderful representation. Their very symmetry defies theory and reason. Any supposed induced electric vector will be counteracted in the geometry of such an aerial, until a neutralized state is obtained. Yet, even small Zig-Zag aerials reportedly received signals of prodigious strength.
Curious during this time of radio development was the appearance of woven cage aerials, space-distributed examples of their planar prototypes. Receptive devices which should never work, these systems outperformed many longer ray and wave aerials. In truth, these cage and loop systems effectively accrete Vril currents in very special symmetries
Much smaller loops began to become popular when shortwave was introduced in the public sector. Here, the Teslian principles could be used to best efficiency despite the Hertzian transmission ·of radiosignals. Coil and loop aerials could be large, such as those six foot diameter varieties which Tesla displayed in 1894, or as small as six inches in diameter. With shortwave, the compact spiral and indoor loop aerial made their second public debut. The efficiency of these aerials enabled a reasonably good signal reception indoors, performing · remarkably well for their small dimensions. These units received signals with equivalent strength as longwire aerials, eliminating the necessity of such large outdoor structures. They offered strikingly good performance during times where static played havoc with longwire outdoor aerials.
Closer attention to this curious developmental series reveals that a breed of broadside loops was first developed, after which an astounding flat-faced loop aerial appeared. As transmitting aerials these devices exalted the electrostatic rays inherent in transmitters of the day. As receiving aerials, the eidetic component was absorbed with great power.
On occasion, Vril threads have been observed descending from specific space points. These are often associated with whole space regions where star clustres seem especially vibrant. Descending ·vril threads have a decidedly insensate nature, and have been erroneously called "white" rays by some who refer to their semi, visibility or semi-sensate nature. Both ascending and descending Vril threads pulsate and vary in their natural manifestations, obeying mysterious Vril ordinances.
Such mysterious discharges between ground and space, actually modified and empowered certain monopolar aerial systems. In their operation we see eidetic translations between otherworlds, the systems being suffused by eidetic Vril threads from stellar domains. In this, we sense an ancient theme. We recall the archane astromancers who received the descending eidetic space currents, and learned of other worlds.
9.16 VRIL AND WORLD COMMUNICATIONS

Vril dynamically interacts with human artifice. This fact has

been observed throughout the millenia. Grounded systems, (dolmens,

stones, temples, cathedrals, or radionic systems) have forever

behaved mysteriously for their human percipients. This topic became

the focussed fascination of several legendary researchers (Kircher,

Mesmer, Ga·l vani, Reichenbach, White, Abrams, Hieronymous, Drown) .

For those engaged with electrical systems, new and strange

behaviors were making themselves known. Vril overtly engages and

actively modifies the physical behavior of electrified or

magnetized devices. It was in this active encounter that inventors,

developers, investigators, and operators alike beheld numerous

objective phenomena which were each deemed "anomalous".

Th e

Vril domain permeates and rules all grounded and aerial

communications systems. Despite the fact that they are empowered

through electrical energies, these communications systems

necessarily involve Vril,interactions of a most intriguing sort.

The distinct shift in ground communications made itself apparent by

the appearance of new aerial components in ground radio circuitry.

A gradual elimination of double grounds showed the metamorphosis,

aerials growing longer with time as designers were placing radiant

emphasis on different electrostatic aspects. Nevertheless, the

reasons why radioelectric signalling operates at all is not found

in the electrical parameters on which designers focus attention.

While these objective anomalies attracted the attentions of

those who dealt only with measurable energetic forces, recognition

of the second variety of anomalies did not come a swiftly as those

which baffled the engineers and designers. Time was required before

sensitive operators and designers alike recognized the more

"perceptual modifying" aspects, paranormal perceptions, associated

with grounded communications systems.

In the complex electrical communications systems, the active

black radiant phenomena were modified and often masked. Only the

most gifted observers were thus empowered to separate black radiant

currents from the applied electrical energies. In nonpowered

electrical systems which are grounded, Vril processions

demonstrated remarkable behaviors. Certain sensitive empirical

designers recognized the anomalous dynamics taking place in their

systems. Empirical observation does not always grant complete

accuracy of scientific assessments. Experimenters, confusing

dielectric rays with Vril threads, believed that electrical impulse

impelled signal radiation. But such improper as~ociations are often

compounded by uninitiated observers. The conjugate nature of

certain energies, such as dielectricity, flows in the spaces which

Vril occupied.

Although dielectricity effects powerful modifications of Vril

threads, it does so through a process of irritation. In this

manner, electrical impulses, not alternations, best produce greatly

enlarged Vril reactivities. In such states, subsequent paranormal

dynamics become evident. There are those who confuse conjugate

natural dynamics with devices which are only accidentally able to

function in other parameters. In this case, electrical systems

engaged Vril energies quite directly. In truth, and in retrospect,

one realizes that Vril guidances were constantly striving with

those who insisted on using unnecessary electrical force. The

electrical components were an outgrowth of this Vril impressment on designers.
Radio-electric systems fortuitously arrange the antagonist ic relationship of electrical inertia and Vril, producing dangerously empowered distant communications in the Vril Matrix. Powerfully attracting· and focussing the consciousness of a few singular individuals, a renaissance in qualitative science began before the last Century's end. Abandoning radioelectric methods, these experimenters preferred a new nonelectric instrumentation of eidetic currents which became known as RADIONICS.
Each of these experimenters recognized the inherent hazard caused by forcing coils and other grounded components to absorb more than their natural capacity of Vril threads. Eliminating every irritating application, they defied reason and affirmed intuition. In so doing, these legendaries rediscovered the basic Vril principles which had almost been lost since their reemergence in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Adding to these precious pieces of knowledge that which had been long forgotten through the centuries, these researchers were afforded an opportunity to develop technology which the scientific convention has never and can never equal.
Numerous radionists recognized that radiostations create such heavily inertialized states at the ground level that biovitality is reduced to dangerously depressed levels. Effectively eliminating the normal sensate eidetic currents which flood a district, radioelectric applications destroy the normal access to aerial Vril strata. Forced to dissolve these inertial conditions, Vril becomes continually enraged. Because of this radioelectric irritant, Vril shifts eidetic imagery to higher geometric pattern states while areas become devoid of immediate eidetic flow.
The aggressive and antagonistic interactions between Vril and inertial space produce various phenomena which have been observed and collated by scientific examiners for centuries. Those physical phenomena, the dynamics of moving bodies and of forces, are collectively termed "inertial" because they both exist and are active in a surficial plane of operation.
Though seeming to hold dominion in our experience through their overt and ponderant character, kinetics and the manifestations of forces have no root in the more fundamental world-reality of consciousness. Kinetics, the ~cience of surficial · inertial experiences, do not penetrate to the ~epth from which our consciousness emerges.
Mere sensory observation of the world, in absence of consciousness, does not constitute the deepest available tool for exploring the world. Without primary consciousness as the worldexploratory tool, no factual derivation can satisfactorily stand or comprise a "valid" science. The ancient philosophers who knew these simple truths relied on their minds before experimenting.
Vril is pre-electric, pre-particulate, pre-aetheric, radiant black space. It was empirically rediscovered that personal interceptions of Vril threads produced remarkable processions of live images. The rediscovery of eidetic earth connection evokes a flood of paranormal experience. Magnified image processions are experienced when special radionic instruments conduct Vril from the

ground. True eidetic communications devices are passive radionic

instruments, requiring no other energy than v7il itself.

Pattern communications systems requ1re no electrical

irritation, the eidetic energy alone supplying all the necessary

communications power. Eidetic communications is an exchange of

patterns. ~his exchange requires no power other than the flicker-

procession of Vril itself. What one does require is an exceptional

radionic instrument which, grounded and filtered, can separate and

project each eidetic component with articulate clarity. CLARITY and

PATTERN determine the efficiency of pure eidetic communications

systems.

EIDETIC EXPERIENCES are the natural transmissions and

receptions which form the mysterious dialogue among geopoints,

equally mysterious foci. Eidetic experiences were noted in few

professional journals because of their distinctively "occult" and

"paranormal" implications, a poise which academes had firmly

resolved to eradicate. Nevertheless, tales of true eidetic

communions have been told and retold by those who plied their trade

in telegraphy and telephony. These, deposited in old trade

journals, were the object of ridicule in their day. When wireless

operators began corroborating these accounts, a few researchers

began to take notice.

There remain a few who preserve the truth of these paranormal

incidents. The discovery of paranormal eidetic transactions in

wireless stations, while not understood, were not completely

dismissed. Not uncommon were the times when distant operators

communicated in total accord, the one anticipating both the

questions and answers of the other. Being "under the influence of

the spark" was a common enough phrase to explain its own meaning.

Vril energies oppose and overwhelm pulsating electrical

signals, producing a continuous Vril flux throughout impulsing

systems which is eidetic. Vril opposition to electrical irritation

manifests in electrical signals as anomalous and spurious

undulations, static, and "noise". Vril generated electrical

undulations do not themselves communicate their complete eidetic

power to operators. The eidetic imagery of VLF systems continues

flowing and overwhelming operators even when VLF generators are

deactivated. This phenomena was noted by operators, especially

during the night.

.

The self-charging of aerial structures :was known to reach

lethal potentials, evidence of the Vril accretion process in

passive grounded systems. The eidetic flood which emerged through

' the aerial systems without power was a paranormal phenomenon often

observed in the early wireless days. These items have been

described in several lectures (Nichols) . The aerial terminal

enables connectivity between ground Vril and space discharge

points. Such threadways, established instantly, produce surpassing

effects in the double ground systems. These effects diminished

completely when aerial systems replaced the double ground systems.

Now, eidetic communications required very specific placement.

Distant stations often reported either "blindspots" (improperly

placed points) or "freak reception" (properly coincident points).

These latter phenomena resulted because district groundpoints act

as Vril beacons. Double ground systems activated all such points

simultaneously, but the aerial-line systems shifted emphasis from the whole district to very specific points in the district. This is why certain latter systems required so much power in order to maintain radio contact, while others could communicate across thousands of optical miles without much power at all.
The Twentieth Century has been a strange episode, an epoch where mere investors and developers managed a broad array of wonderfilled patents into megalithic industries. Themselves not true discoverers, certain names stand out as obsessive moguls. Morgan, Sarnoff, Zworykin, Steinmetz: the commercializers of far deeper and yet unfathomed scientific wonders. Consistent with the general profile, such personalities managed the complete eradication of essential themes.
Purloined from inventions, whose originators they methodically eradicate, the consumable aspects of invention are commercially reduced for production. The inhuman assembly line hammers away the wonder. The ceaseless forge pounds out the mystery. The press bleaches out the glory.
Radio is not now that glorious and vitalizing tool which Meucci and Stubblefield foresaw ... that wonder which mystified children sense when huddled close to pocket crystal receivers. There, safely secure in the heart of winter, a sapphire space of cold winter nights pulses with the stars. The message of eternity.

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Mr 0 and Mrs 0 Chris glowing roses in a globe quartz crystals in a glass case
deco electric clocks your peace was a white light to me

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THE EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY ON MUSCULAR MOTION

·Having discovered the effects of artificial electricity on muscular

contractions which we have thus far explained, there was nothing

we would sooner do than to investigate whether atmospheric elec-

tricity, as it is called, would afford the same phenomena, or not:

whether, for example, by employing the same devices, the passage

of lightning, as of sparks, would excite muscular contractions.

Therefore we erected, in the fresh air, in a lofty part of the house,

a long and suitable conductot, namely an iron wire, and insulated
it, Fig. 7, and to it, when a storm arose in the sky, attached by their

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nerves either prepared frogs, or prepared legs of warm animals, as in Fig. 20, 21, Tab. IV. Also we attached another conductor, namely

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another iron wire, to the feet of the same, and this as long as possible, that it might extend as far as the waters of the well indicated in the

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figure. Moreover, the thing went according to our desire, just as in artificial electricity; for as often as the lightning broke out, at the

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same moment of time all the muscles fell into violent and multiple contractions, so that, just as the splendor and flash of the lightning are wont, so the muscular motions and contractions of those animals

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preceded the thunders, and, as it were, warned of them; nay, indeed, so great was the concurrence of the phenomena that the con trac-

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tions occurred both when no muscle conductor was also added, and

when dle nerve conductor was not insulated, nay it was even possible to observe them beyond,.hope and expectation when the con-

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ductor was placed on lower ground, Fig. 8, particularly if the lightnings either were very great, or burst from cl~uds nearer the place

~

of experimentation, or if anyone held the iron:wire F in his hands

at the same time when the thunderbolts fell.

Moreover, the phenomenon occurred whether the animal was

exposed in the fresh air, or, for the sake of convenience, had been

enclosed in a suitable jar, as in Fig. 7, or kept within the room. It

occurred also although the nerve-conductor was at some distance

from the nerves themselves, particularly with lightnings either more

violent or ne·arer, as we said occurred in artificial electricity when

LUIOI OALVANI

the sparks wer~ either stronger or extorted nearer the animal. Finally

that worthy of not1ce occurred, that not merely by one contraction

of muscles was the whole thing manifested in the lightning as in the

spark, but by many, succeeding one another as it were in one mutual

moment of time, of which the nurrrber of thunders seemed to corre-

spond to the number which a thunderbolt is wont to produce. .

Now, indeed, such contractions were produced not merely with

lightning but in a stormy sky, with clouds passing over the almost

removed conductors they arose for the most part~spontaneously;

and when this had happened, both the electrometer:s gave no slight

signs of electricity, and not rarely sparks could be elicited from· the

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conductors raised 'high in air, differently from when contractions

were obtained with lightning-flashes; for then more often no sparks

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were elicited, and-more delicate electrometers hardly aroused any

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suspicion of electricity. Now experiments of this kind were undertaken not only in dead

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but also in living animals, and in both the phenomenon appeared,
and none of those thi_ngs was omitted which we have disc~vered in

1:.

artificial electricity, but all for the most part occurred in the same

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way. At first sight, indeed, it seemed that this considerable differ-

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ence existed, that the prepared frogs which, with a suitable conduc- ·

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tor, were enclosed in a little glass machine, Fig. 6, Tab. I, s_eparated from the conductor of the electric machine by an interVal, on the

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passage· of the spark were violently disturbed, as we said, but, ·when

lightning burst from the clouds, were wholly quiescent; perhaps

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either because, if any ~lect~city were conveyed from the electric

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cloud to the little machine by means of the conductor, it was· very

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slight, and occupied a very small part of its surface, so that it was

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not adequate for inducing contractions, or p~rhaps because none

was carried to the same little machine; just as for the most part,

for the same reason the same con tractions are lacking on the passage

of the spark, if the little machine is placed, not near the electric

machine, but near that end of the electric .conductor, EE Fig. 3,

Tab. I, which' is far distant from the same machine.

- ··· _

Upon diligent investigation of the circumstance, on this account,

the manner of action appears similar between artificial and atmospheric el~ctrici ty; perhaps fo~ obtaining these con tractions within

the little glass machine, it is necessary that the electric atmosphere,

~ either wholly or for the most part, should surroll:nd the same rna-~

LUIGI GALVAN!
chine; but, from what has hitherto been stated, it seems· to be far removed from the position of the little machine and from the experiment.
But not merely the phenomenon having been explored, but its laws also having been subjected to examination, we have ascertained that the same are maintained in no dissimilar manner in atmospheric, as are maintained in artificial, electricity.
Now, indeed, the effects of storm electricity, as they say, having been investigated, not of thunder and lighting alone, it occurred to us _also to test what sheet lightning and northern light~ would produce in animals prepared in the customary way. Therefore we adapted our animals to an atmospheric conductor not only during lightning but during northern lights. But no contractions were ever then produced, perhaps because either such coruscations do not depend on electricity or, if they do, either in too remote a place, or they, occur for some very different reason than thunderbolts. But these are questions for the ph~sicists.

LUIGI GALVAN!
From these observations it was· clear to us that there is required not only the application of a conducting body to the nerves, but also a certain magnitude and extension thereof, for the production of the phenomenon. Hereafter, for the sake of perspicuity, not of brevity, let us be permitted to call such a conductor a nerve-conductor.
Moreover, we attached to the extremity of this conductor a frog
by means of a small hook fixed into its spinal cord, Fig. 2., and some-
times placed the frog opposite the machine, sometimes placed its conductor so that the frog was now near the machin~, now far distant from it, and therefore now the. feet, now the prepared nerves, were turned towards the machine, which had the conductor now before now behind it; nevertheless contractions were always obtained equally. . We- investigated moreover whether the phenomenon would be obtained in prepared animals, from a machine situated far distant, and this em-ploying very long nerve-conductors. Moreover, the trial
was so conducted that when an iron wire, I 50 feet long and more,
was employed, nevertheless, when a spark was produced, con tractions of the muscles occurred, even at so great a distance from the machine.
We arranged an experiment in this way. We suspended an iron
wire, EEE, Fig. 3, by a series of silk threads and, as· the physicists
say', insulated it. One end vre attached similarly by silk threads to a
nail driven in the wall, F; the other we conducted far from the machine the length of the w~re into various other rooms. To this, at
point C, we attached another iron wire, B, to whose extremity a frog was attached; and for convenience enclosed the frog in a glass jar, A, the ~ottom of which was filled with some conducting material, like water, for example, or very fine lead shot~ whereby a better experiment resulted. But when a spark was produced from the conductor of the machine, surprisingly the. headless frog moved at so great a distance and jumped vigorously about. The same thing happened if a frog outside the glass jar was attached in the same way to conductor EE, and far more quickly if there were attached to its feet some conducting ·body which communicated with the earth.

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LETI'ERS OF CAR.MINATI AND GALVAN!

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Signor Volta concluded that the

;).deficiency of electric fluid exists on the part of the nerves, not the · ·.;~excess, as you had believed you could advance on other conjectures . ·-~-:. :Therefore, .our 4istinguished Signor _Volta wishes the contrary of

·.·.your opinion, w4ich is not yet held as a settled thing, because based

. ;· on experiments ·of the utmost delicacy, made by him in number, : :~:;but not yet repeated as much as he would wish.

: ....Meantitpe, while the above celebrated physicist attends to these

·: experiments on frogs, that they may be perfectly reasonable and

. easy to perform, let not others among us cease to experiment on

other animals, including warm-blooded; and already are verified the

:·.tests made by yourself on_ birds and quadrupeds~ Those of my own

. Institute are now propositig some experiments, which can be of very

useful application to medicine, on the action of poisons and of drugs,

· especially of those which are called medicinal and heroic.

· To do these experiments I have already made suitable arrange-

ments with Signor Volta; and so, after having conferred with him

about it, I have already performed a trial of experiments directed

· to determine the action of opium, of camphor, of musk, ·of snake-

. venom, of cherry laurel, of bitter almond, and others, with regard

to exalting and abating animal electricity, applying these materials

now to nerves and now .to muscles, now in substance, and now by

~eans of infusion, holding the animal for some time immersed, either

· intact or deprived of some parts~ Within a short time I shall perhaps

be in· position to communicate to you the principal results of these,

my researches. 1 We purpose still to investigate what may be the electric action

of nerves on other parts than the muscles, that is on membranes and

on vessels; and in what manner it modifies the circulation of fluids,

the secretions, and other things; if indeed in this we have not been

already forestalled by you, as supposes our most esteemed friend ,

Don Mariano Fontana, who esteems you as much as I, who do not ·

allow mysdf to be surpassed by anyone in the honor of being, with

the most distinguished consideration and greatest respect, yours.

Pavia. 3 April, 1792.

Letter _from Doctor Luigi Galvani to Professor Don Bassano Carminati

l have finally written out, in some manner, amid the scarcity of

time in which I live daily, the few considerations pertaining to the

experiments of the illustrious Signor Volta which I promised you

in my latest. I beg you to submit them to the sagacious·discernment

of so illustrious a philosopher, to ~hom I entrust them and on whose

judgment will depend principally their fate. They are expressed

roughly and in confusion; in such a manner, that .is, as the. brevity

· of time and my scanty ability have permitted. But whereas he ·be-

lieved them not entirely useless, you can embellish them with the

/}.

elegance of your style; therefore I consecrate .them ~holly to you. The learned author, then, as you advise me1 has measured the

~

quantity. of artificial electricity which, in a frog prepared and arma-

tured in the manner proposed by me, suffices to produce muscular contractions, and has found this to be the tenth part of a degree of

A

what is necessary to· render it sensible to the most delicate electrometer, and thence he draws two beautiful conclusions: one is

A

that the frog prepared in a similar way ·is an electrometer.ten times

II

more sensitive and delicate than any yet invented, and even than his own most delicate ones; the other is that a similar minute quan-

~

tity of animal electricity will suffice to produce natural and spontaneous movements in the aforesaid animal; thence there comes by·

~

legitimate deduction the prodigious force which extrinsic electricity must have, whether it be terrestrial or atmospheric, in animals and

~

thence in man, and therefore he had not yet sufficiently learned what

and how great changes occurred to infer this either in one or in the

other.

i

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In short, in a very brief time he has shed no little light on the

most interesting point of the influence of terrestrial and atmospheric

electricity on our actions, and on the alterations and diseases which

frequently afflict us; and in other animals he has no little encouraged

the doctors to continue the use of artificial electricity, making them

hope, with every reason, no small advantage.

He has made other beautiful experiments concerning the seat of

the excess and of the deficiency of this animal electricity, referred to

muscles and to nerves.

-

.~ I · • A. ·. .

.

. I
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•
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.l;...,_.,

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.

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' ' . ~ . .;..·,

' ..

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..

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, ...

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~

FRANKLIN

.),

r AERIAL-GROUND STORM ·DETECTORS

uo At E~pt>lll)'~ the Count Lu~ hus· a locomotl,·e which

dnve~ a. threBhiug machine by mea.us ~r a It ather belt some mctrl's in length. Standing near the . pelt, und to prot~er

him from the heat of the fire, he ·one day ht>lJ open a p:tra-

oul which hatl a wooul!n haut.ile antl .a fru.n)e or bracing,

mauc, ati usual, of iron: · li:lppeniu:;{ to touch 0110 of . the

bract•H he imuwlliately expcrienc~cd a senHible elE:-ctric

sho('k.

1

• . :: . . ·. · · : . •

.

Tho followin~ day I repenteu the .cxpe~iment nml ~>htained

sparkH nbout three· fourth~ of an inch long, following each

other so rapidly us to indicate an almost continual curn•nt,

the intl·n~ity of wlth.:h ~:o~ecuH.•d to dept!tltl upou tlw rnpi<..lity. '"-'-_,.·,-· \Yith which the belt moved. \Vhen the engine workt>d \'<.•ry1

rnpidly, strong spnrks e:;cuping from the hclt to the uoilcr

prouu<.-e.l n cracking noise, which couhl lu.! distinetly !ward. thou~h t.hc light' prevt~lltl•d thmll from being seen.
How t•oulu thisllt3 explairw<l? Could it he attributed to IIL'II-~~4,. 1'...1inlf;J:J~;~~'·

d('ctridty uell.'\'opeu by the evaporation of water- in the boikr. ali in the hydro-electrie machi~1eof Arnisti'm1gT N(), taJM~I.l

lwt•ause th<' boilt.•r of Armstrong-'s Huchinw must ·he

11111\llltt•<l on insuhlting pillars of ~lass, while in tllis ea~t>, on tlll' <'Otltrary, the iron wlH..'l•l:; of the lo<.·onH)ti\'t~ res

upon and fl>rtllL'll a ecnillmiiiieatioil with damp grounu. -·-·· . Tht.•(•xplanation, whichsel'IDP<l to lilt.' snti~fuctory, iii th~ ­ fullowin);: Tlw bt•lt was not tmtlil'it•ntly ti~ht, and the en-

~itH·t·r l'l'snrtt.•d tu tlll' comnwn exp··~lient of powd••ring it

wit 11 ro:-;in in ordt>t' t<l incrt•ast.• its ndht.•!:dou to the t.lri vin~

wht.•t•l and plllll')'. Still the atlhet:Jiolt was not Jll'l'fL•ct, and

l•y tilt• fl'il'tion IJl'lWet· n tl~t• pullt•y an<l ~t.·lt, as in tilL· usual t•l,·ctw-phPI'o\1~, tlll' l\\'t> lluid~ wt•rt.• ~wpatatl'd. The frattH' nf tlat.•para..;ul adetl tht• P 'lrt ·of a <'<JIIdL'Il~t·r. atld a~ •"•ow•-..;~t l lht• bl'lt wa~ about tt.•n yards lou~ and lllll'·fuunh of a yartl ;~~~~~~~ r.IJI"r.t~~~.K..JII widt•, it pr. ·s\'lltt•tl a superlit~ial un•a. ut' nhtl\lt l\\:ll and Olll'·

half squarL• yard~. upnn whil:h a con-.;itlL•ral,lt.• qtt:wt i ty of

frc•• t.•lt•t·tril'ity l'ollld l•l' :H't.'tllintlatt•tl. I ha<l 110 lllt'alls of

lll'tt•rttlining- tht.• ~l)t't:tt•s t)f t•IL•l·trivit)"• U11l I t)Jitlk

,.,.. ___..,_,_

rl·!(ill<llt~. --.1 . J!. Flllll<'l~t· i11 .\'afttl'l' ,

ON A NEW co_N_NE__._O_T_Io_N,.. FoR ·jTHE ~Nnuc~i.oN c.oxL.

Dy Pro(. J.:dwln J. lloa.aton,ln the Jour at of tbo Fraoklld Instlt,te.
The following·cx~fri~lCnts wen fnlldc at 'tho Cont~' High ~.,...._....

School of Philatlclphiu, with a vit )V .of inorcasing ·the quan-

;.i;;~~~~~~;,·~

tity.of the spark or .· tho inductio minishing it:i length, Tho .instr

' '

coil cnt

\vi ·}!out greatly . diused· was made by

Hitchie, of Boston... and will . thro .. tho spark ~ix inches jn

L ...__..,o..LJ~~~l~~~~~~ fre;n~~f tl~e poles . ends ~! th ;t~oc~nd~;y ·~i~o·:was: cJl~

-.;;~..,Q.1!l'i(J~"~ ""r.a~a~•

nech.-d pipe.

with th~ The other

peoalr~t·h. w..basycaoncnoepct:·~~r

'w~~itr he , aow.ttinrcel,;ewd h·tioc.h··n:r egs~t :

ctl on n lnrgo lccturo ; to.hi~ holdin :~he coil.. pn t.~rriing \}{e

break piece, the · ele~tricity, .tnst~n ,,,of being l9s.~ .by,passtng

along the wires to tho earth, j um · 1 from~ tho polo ·connect·

,Hr · od wlth the table ·tp1 . that ·conno · 1<1 with tho earth. .Tho

thickucMs o! tho ~njark ·w~s· gre

increnMcd, its lon~li

diminished, and lt:i 1 color ·chang :.. to a· sqvery whltc, ~s

wh<'n a Leyden jar is plnced in do.path of tho discharge;
\Vhilo t}1e electric~ ty ~9 tlo.wing *~tween' the points,. long HII~~Jf~rJW.4i~~\

t!parks mny be drawn from any· ~· rt ot the table, or from II:~~~~~~~ nny metnllk artlcl~ W~thin;eighC o. :.; Inc feet ot th~ coil. .:on

on<~ occasion, the gas' wutt llgh ~ed ... a t~pnrk drawn floin .tho

finger o! a· p·orlion stnnding on ·the . 9or. .: ~ho gas 'plp·e b~Jng

in 11lmost perfect con~ection wit~ hnvo been given to.it fr!lm tho bO<~

po eil.rth, tho sparkmust
·bt.tho person. ::: . ·:· · ; .

.
f·

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:_('.

1 1.

On another occn~i~n, ·one wlro w : ~ttached to tho gas pipe,' ....,. !..• ~ .·.·.-.-...c ....

f'lltr:;;l;i:!'iifil! as be!ore, and the other to a stove, !Whoa~ pipe connect~ '\vith ~

that ot another stove l~.an adjoi ~g ~om. The thickness ___....__
of the spark .was greatly increa' d. · Sparks were: dravm ~..-.-.
from· the distant stovo, a'nd ·e.ven.f! ~ ·~ sm'~nataam e~g\n1e,

~hloh latter wus fully: thirty !oe~ ~om the ~U. t~ln ' i'Lll .,the

experiments it ~o.s fqund ·neces~ jto insulate tho handle of

tbo break p1 ns a: slight shock. 'ae . experienced at ·f!Very

break. Tho pte · pelng k9t1t .a·t a :~~lltanc'e !rom ·c~c~ ~ 'otl~.u.r

les:t than tho ils lat~ng po~ver.oq: ~con; six l_n~}~~· no ~a!l·

gt~r o! inj1uing l l~1strument w ;·approhendeq. : : In one In·

a rLI.....IWitli,'\AIIIIri. Stance .sparks WCro ·qra\Vfl, Jn

I UDdernca'th :'tJie adjoi.n. ~.

ing room, !rom a wire whl.ch ·co cctod with ;tl1o '.to.lJlc on

which tho coil rested. · .

. · ' ::·, f .: ~ .; '· ,:;.~:· ::,z.··' ·?: ;. i:'

Thesa facts showing :grcnt los's · ·1t4o cl~ctrl.~ity,:huf'Indi-

cating tho need for fL la·rg" .condu !,~r, probnb1y to allo'Y the_,........_

rapld di:~clu1rgo ot tl~e soco~do.ry . 'l'e, a largo ·Insulated COD·

ductor ~as extemporized, by placl : some old .tin stills ·q.nd

percolators on' large 'glass jars. n connecting one of the.

pole:s wltl1 this conluctor, and th pther with. the gas pipe, the quantity of. the spa.rk was in~: , ascd, though there w~s reason to belio'Yo th t, wit}~ a larg' ~!conquctor, btliter r~sult11

would haYo been obtn{ned., .Tho c \iductor wa.s then divided lnto two, o! aoout e~unlslze_,· whic Lf~eie ·· colmect~d with the
poles.. Tho q.unntlty of the sp~r~ Jfas. lncrca.aed, with, h.ow.
over, great du~lnutiou in the lcntfth. .' By successively di·

mlntshlng tho 1.1lze pf one of tho inductors, and increasing
that of tho .other, the lt'ngth '!f ~ o spark was lncrQaspd,

without any sensible diminution its quantity, 'Untll, when i

one o! tho 'conductors was less ttn one .&q~o.re !O<?t ln. :sur7 '\. face, . a fine quantl~y ipa.rk ·of ut five ·· inches· w~ pb·,. :

tai~e<~.lll be n~tlcecl:tiuit th.is ~n~~i~tlo~ is a:,~e~hn~ ·a~~~l~r ·,

to that used in thu common cyll .~erl . or plato ml'chln~, in

which one ot tho' conductors, gen tally the negative, Is con· ncctt!d with thu 'cn~th, and ·tho qantlty ot the electricity

thereby lncrenacd.. \ •

· · ~~ I· .

• .

In all tho. ~xp~lmonts Jn whlc~, o~e 'polo was In ~artlnl -,.,...

connection w1th th ourth, as 1 whcn ~t rfstcu on tho table, the .
lo~s of clcctri<"ity URt havo ~cnn yery great, for several gas

and water pipes were in connection iwith tho table. .. If, then,

the tnble merely serves us an !mpcr!ectly Insulated conductor, which allow:~ tho rapltllntluctlon ol.t!lcctriclty in tho et!condary wire by It~ rupid dit~cho.rgo, and}therehy, notwithstanding

tho loMs, gives HO gn•tlt an incrcnl!e in tho quantity o(. tho

,. ,.park, it woultl scorn that If, in::ttcutl ot tho tauln, lln insulated

CQildUctor of Yery lllrgn surfucu weru Used, ll much greater . .\ir ."!UJ.__..~ lnerco.~u In quuntity wnultl be obtnlnt•d.

It would l!cem from tlw above ux'pt!rinu:nts, that tho maxi-

mum incrt~aHu will lu: ohtllincd whon Ollll o( tho polu11 IH con-

nt~ctt~d with no lmmlutt•tl conduc:tor, tmy Hevcrul hundruu _ ... .,.....,..c~~

squa.re !et!t In surfuct~. n.ncl the: ntlwr with tho enrth .

._',t'J"•<f·,·'.-ff~~~ .. -.-.. -.. ..

· ·t~

.• •

Vol. XVIII.

THE
Electrical Engineer.
JULY 4, 1894.

No. 322.

CURIOUS .EFFECTS OF HERTZIAN WAVES.
BY

D N the issue of the London Electrician of June s, -1894, under the)1eading, "Hertzian·"W:aves at
the Royal Institution," the following remark occurs: "It is wholly probable, as Dr! Lodge

suggests, that Hertzian waves may often have

manifested themselves in physical laboratories to the

annoyance of the workers, etc."

I may mention in this connection that in 1877, if I

remember the year correctly, while working a Ruhmkor::ff

induction coil, one terminal of which was grounded and

the other terminal of which was attached to an insulated

metallic body, Prof. Houston and I noticed that when the

sparks were passing between the terminals of the coil, it

was possible not only to obtain minute sparks from all

metallic bodies in the immediate neighborhood, that is, in

the same room, but that delicate sparks .could be taken by

holding in the hand a small piece of metal near metallic

objects in many other rooms and on different floors in the

building, although the pieces were not connected to

ground. These could only have been Hertzian effects,

but there was no recognition of their true character at the

time, though the effects were seen to be connected with

the very quick charging and discharging of the insulated

body. An account of these experiments was, I think, pub-

lished in the Jo·urnal of the Franklin Institute at the time.

I desire also to· mention, as coming under my notice

within the past year, a curious and rather amusing illustra-

tion of the principle upon which the beautiful instrument

for detecting the presence of electric oscillations devised

by Dr. Lodge and called by him the "coherer," is based.

It was reported to me when in Philadelphia that a cer-

tain electro-plater had found that he could not pursue his

~ilver plating operations during thunder-storms, and that

if he left his plating over night and a thunder-storm came

up the work was invariably ruined. I was disposed to be

thoroughly skeptical, ~nd expressed my disbelief in any

such effect. Being urged, however, I went to the silver

plater's shop, which was a small one, and questioned the

silver plater himself concerning the circu1Il£tance which

had been reported. \Vhile it was evident that he was not

a man who had informed himself electrically, I could not

doubt that, after conversing with him, he had indeed been

stating what was perfectly operations of plating were

true; . going

noanmaenldy,a

that when his thunder storm

arose, his batteries, which ·were Smee cells,' acted as -though

they were short.circuited, and the deposit of metal was

. made at too rapid a rate. The secret came out on an in-

spection of his connections. The connections of his bat-

teries to his baths were made through a number of bad

contacts which could not fail to be of high resistance under

orJinary conditions. I could readily see that virtually he

was working through a considerable resistance and that he

h:'ld au excess of battery power for the work. Under these

circumstances a flash of lightning would cause coherence

of his badly contacting surfaces, and would improve the

conductivity so as to cause an excessive flow of current,

give a too rapid deposit; and-as he put it-"make the

batteries boil."

·

The incident suggests the use of Dr. Lodge's ingenious :

instrument in the study of the waves which are propagated

during thunderstorms, of which waves we have practically

little or no information.

Iii

•

l\~I oJ e1 of t he his to ric tun eJ-ci rcui t appa r a t us 'T' hoIn son use J
to disprove the Edison "etheric force" ~~rgument - 1876

rr·
~ ~-· .~~-(~-'.
y F
Thorr{:son was already at work setting up apparatus for the experiment. He was quite certain that the so-called "etheric force" was .a train of electromagnetic waves sent through space by the rapidly oscillating sparks from the induction coil, an action
6 analogous to sound waves set in motion by the vibrating cords of '-~
the human voice. The energy, he believed, was supplied by the coil, transformed at the surface of the condenser plates into electromagnetic waves which traveled out in all directions, and, upon ·1 passing through a "receiver" composed of metallic objects t almost touching, transformed back again into minute electric (, sparks. If he was right, the experiments would be valuable laboratory proof of Maxwell's theory, so far existing only on paper. Thomson was, in fact, after bigger game than Edison. He hoped ..J#"~fill~ to make a basic contribution to physical science.
Edwin Houston lent little to the occasion except th~ table top in his ground-floor classroom, where Thomson had set up a large Ruhmkorff induction coil. But Elihu was too sure of his procedure - to need his superior's help. The connections were very simple. One terminal of the coil he fastened to a water pipe, the other to a large tin still mounted on a glass jar near by. The coil was supplied with current from a powerful battery of bichromate cells under -- . the table. Any modern schoolboy will recognize that he had made the classical setup for a transmitter of wireless signals.
For a receiver Thomson rigged up a black box, open at one side and provided with two graphite pencil points nearly touching within. One of the pencils carried a large brass knob outside to ,
~\' ,, ·~.
- \ \\\ ' ,, )

._w., , .A6,.,_~ ..

--~-'

I

absorb more of the waves. Again, the rudimentary radio receiver.

From our twentieth century knowledge of electrophysics it seems

certain that Elihu Thomson, with the basic apparatus in his

hands, must have gone on to discover the whole great principle

of wireless signaling forthwith. But he did not. For the second

. time in four years he missed the practical implications fairly

staring him in the face and stuck to his theoretical investigation.

Thomson, the pure scientist, was to the fore that day. He was

only the first of that long line of laboratory men-Hertz, Crookes,

~• Helmholtz, Lodge and many more-who must complete their

work before the youthful Marconi -vvould see the enormous '..~

practical value of electron1agnetic telegraphy and at l~st make ~·­

it work.

A great invention is ·a notorious insult to the men who make - ~

it. Though a thousand minds labor, it refuses to be born till it (_
pleases and then it turns to mock them all for their stupidity. if

No doubt if some prophetic person had told Thon1son just 1

then that he had the secret of a priceless system of communication

in his grasp, he would have been unmoved. All that he wanted to

;;.~~fJ do was to refute Edison's idea of an "etheric force" and establish

~~~experimental proof of Maxwell's waves. Turning on the Ruhm-

. korff coil and setting the gap to give the brightest and fattest

sparks, he began a systematic search for the electromagnetic

'waves he hoped to find. Everywhere in Houston's classroom

- · "spark:s flashed brilliantly in the black box. Thomson took it into

, the next roo1n; the sparks were just as strong. Down cellar they

were as good, even to the farthest corner. lie found that it was

· · unnecessary to use the box at all. There was runaway energy

enough to produce the sparks by holding a sharp pencil against

the brass knobs of the doors.

Elihu hurried from room to room, trying every metallic object

that was insulated from ground. On ·the second floor he got the

same results, and on the third. Finally climbing five flights of stairs to the obs~rvatory on the roof he made the pencil test again

and found the wave energy still abundant.

Astronomy Professor Snyder, working quietly in his observa-

.\ tory, was considerably surprised when his visitor burst in. But as
~the young chemistry instructor panted out an explanation of his ~-

: experiment Snyder dropped what he was doing and took a decided A

t.~

~

•

.. • .., , .._~

rtr ....... ~•

_,

·

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_

__ _

I
interest. With growing attention he watched as Thomson drew

sparks, first from the doorknob, then from the eyepiece of the

telescope, and finally even fron1 a group of small metallic objects

in a glass case.

Thomson invited him to try the pe11cil for himself. Snyder

did so, growing more excited every minute. At a time like this

the most sedate scientist acts like a child with a shiny new toy.

The professor of astronomy knew Maxwell's work well-knew

too that he had predicted the passage of electromagnetic waves

through space or "ether" between the atoms of all known sub-

stances. This was certainly the proof. The spark coil was operating '\:

90 feet below them, and the energy was coming up through five ·

floors loadt;d with mortar and bricks and heavy beams.

/

They moved along the hallway to the door of the library, which ~

had a particularly splendid brass knob. Here the sparks were so r

intense as almost to be audible. Thomson stopped suddenly and "

grinned inquiringly at Snyder. The older 1nan nodded. "There's 1

no doubt about it," he said. "Electric energy transmitted through

space.1"

· ~ut science is never spectacular all the time. Other very

different tests were necessary. If the sparks really were generated

by electromagnetic waves instead of by some unexplained

"etheric force," they would be absent when the waves were

~ absent, even though the induction coil was still in operation.

· · " Thomson devised an ingenious apparatus to suppress the waves

, without stopping the coil. It consisted of two "resonators" or

tuned circuits, each sending out a wave of it~ own. The two could

be adju?ted so that their waves would add up and go out together,

, or so that they would oppose and neutralize each other.

This principle of "interference" was a very old one in the

field of light waves, having been discovered centuries before by

,

Newton. Elihu Thomson reasoned that if Maxwell were right in

saying that light and electromagnetic waves were of the same

nature, then the interference principle should work now. '

He \Vas delighted to find that it did \Vork. The two resonators

could be adjusted "in phase" to send out powerful waves, giving

their sparks all over the building. Or they could be set in opposi-

tion, so that no waves went out at all, and consequently no sparks ,

ta..o..o,.e~ ared. · · '

,- ~.Atf -lI'~./lj;_;_·J-r::_~_

. 1 v A _~ ::_1-~~\ ~:1 / ~!7~F

Electrical Engineer.

Vor.. XIV.

DECEMBER 21, 1892.

No. 242.

')'HE DISSIPATION OF THE ELECTRICAL EN- nations, and increases very rapidly when the diameter of

ERGY OF THE HERTZ RESONATOR.

the wire is made exceedingly small. On the latter point the recently published results of Prof. Ayrton and H. Kil-.

gour on ''The Thermal Emissivity of Thin Wires in Air"

BY

throw a curious light. Exceedingly thin wires are capable of

~ .

~i

d;~~ . kAr'--------

di~sipating a comparatively very great amount of energy by the agitation of the surrounding air, when they are connected to a sourQe of rapidly alternating potential. So in

~

the experiment cited, a thin hot wire is found to be capable of emitting an extraordinarily great amount of heat, NYONE who, like myself, has had the pleasure especially at elevated temperatures. In the case of a hot

' ·. ·.. ,

• ~

of witnessing the beautiful demonstrations with wire it must of course be assumed that the increased emis-

\' ' ·

. vibrating dil:!phragms which Prof. Bjerknes, sivity is due to the more rapid convection and not, to any

· .,) :J .

exhibited in person at the Paris Exposition in

r~ ~

1889, must have admired his ability and

_ ' ~r,,

pain~t~kin~ c~re to such a degree, as to h~ve an almost

1.~~ · ~-- .......~ ImphClt fa1th m the correctness of obser:vat10ns made by

~ t - ~ 4111(' ~" him. His experiments "On the Dissipation of the Elec-

appreciable degree, to an increased radiation. Were the latter demonstrated, it would show that a wire, made hot by the application of heat in ordinary ways, behaves in some respects like one, the charge of which is rapidly alternated, the dissipation of energy pe_r unit of surface kept at

~ n trical Energy of the Hertz Resonator," which are describ.ed in the issue of Dec. 14, of THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER, are ~ . \~- ... prepared in the same ingenious and skillful·manner, and ~ f."' , "; •: 1 the conclusions ~rawn from t~em are all the more interesti~g · · ~ as they agree w1th the theones put forth by the most ad-
·- vanced thinkers. There can not be the slighest doubt as

a certain temperature depending on the curvature of the

surface. I do not recall any record of experiments intended

to demonstrate this,· yet this effect, though probably very

small, should certainly be looked for.

-

A number of observations showing the pec~liarity of

verv thin win•s were made in the course of my experi-

·

to the truth of these conclusions, yet the statem~nts which me!;.ts. I noted, for instance, that in the well-known

,

follow may serve to explain in part the results arrived at in Crookes instrument the mica vanes are repelled with com-

' a different manner; and with this object in view I venture paratively greater force when the incandescent platinum

to call attention to a conditi_on with· which, in investiga- wire is exceedingly thin. This observation enabled me to

tions such as those of Prof. Bjerknes, the experimenter is produce the spin of such vanes mounted in a vacuum tube

confronted.

.

when the latter was placed in an alternating electrostatic

The apparatus, oscillator and resonator, being immer~ed field. This however does not prove anything in regard to

. in air, or other discontinuous medium, there occurs-as I radiation, as in a highly exhausted vessel the phenomena

have pointed out in the description of my recent experi- are principally due. to molecular bombardment or con-

ments before the English and French scientific societies- vection.

dissipation of energy by what I think might be appropri- When I first un-dertook to produce the incandescence of

ately called electric sound-waves or sound-waves of electri- a wire enclosed in a bulb, by connecting it to onl~ one of

fied air. In Prof. Bjerknes's experiments principally this dissipation in the resonator need be considered, though the sound-waves-if this term be permitted-which

the terminals of a high tension transformer, I could not .

succeed for a long time. in a bulb a thin pla.tinum

Oa one occasion I had mounted wire, but my apparatus was not

~· '~h--.-.··•·-~~

emanate from the surfaces at the oscillator may consider- adequate to produce the incandescence. I made other bulbs, ,,

ably affect the observations made at some distance from reducing the length of the wire to a small fraction; still I

the latter. Owing to this dissipation the period of vibra- did not succeed. It then occurred to me that it would be

tion of an air-condenser can not be accurately determined, desirable to have the .surface of the wire ~s large as pos-

and I have already drawn attention to this important fact. sible, yet the bulk small, and I provided a bulb with an

These waves are propagated at right angles from the exceedingly thin wire' of a bulk about equal to that of the

1~~~~~ charged surfaces when their charges are alternated, aud short but much thicker wire. On turning the current on

di!!sipation occur!l, even if the surfaces are covered with the bulb the wire was instantly fused. A series of subse-

. ' ~hick and excellent insulation. Ass?ming that the "charge" quent experiments showed, that wh~n the diameter of the

'-.

~.·1 Imparted to a molecule or atom either by direct .contact wire was exceedingly . small, considerably more energy

~.:\.~"1"·"··. '·'/'

or inductively is proportionate to the surface, the dissipation should

the electric density of be proportionate to the

would be dissipated per unit surface at all degrees of exhaustion than was to be expected, even on the assump-

~ .

·... square of the density and to the number of waves per sec- tion that the energy given off was in proportiqn to the

l?"t ' . ·'

· ond. The above assumption, it should be stated, does not . square of the electric density.. There is likewise .evidence

agree with some observations from which it appears that which, though not possessing the certainty of an accurate

'lit....:'J;

an atom can not take but a certain maximum charge; hence, quantitative determination, is nevertheless reliable because

..,,... ' the charge imparted may be practically independent of the it is the result of a great many observations, namely, that

~~lt~~J density of the surface, but this is immaterial for the pres- with the increase of the density the dissipation is more

ent consideration. Thts and other points will be decided rapid for thin than for thick wires.

·

~~~8IIJJ when accurate quantitative determinations, which are as The effects noted in exhausted vessels with high-fre-

yet wanting, shall be made. At present it appears certain quency currents are merely diminished in degree when the

from experi.ments with· high-frequency currents, that this air is at ordinary pressure, but heating and dissipation ·

dissipation of energy from a wire, for instance, is not very w~· far from being proportionate to the frequency of the alter-

occurs, spheric

as I have demonstrated, conditions. Two very

under the thin wires

ordinary attached

taotmto-h.....e ...-- ~··;_

~?

,~~ ... l.' . .. ,. ~ ·,

. J..T, ~ · ·

. I

. .. ,#-.," ,

·"

' ·'it~' .i

f":j~~:.a-:;c~.~,r..:..-,-~:~.-····;-j_-!~"' ·~. ~w.J~.:t/~.:..-!~~~- :~_ ~:~~~ ~' ~~-~~

. terminals of a high-frequency coil are capable .of giving off . is more rapin when the resonator is it;nmersed in air than it

---·-...--:>~ an appreciable amount of energy. When the .d_ensit:#'is . ~ very great, the temperature of the wires m;f.y be percep-.

would be in a practically continuous medium, for instance oil. ' 2. ·The dissipation owing 'to the presence of air ren~

tibly raised, and in such case probably the greater portion of the energy which is dissipated owing to ·the

ders the difference between magnetic and non-macrnetic metals more striking. The first conclusion follows di~ectly

"Jresence of a discontinuo'!ls. medium is transformed into from the preceding remarks; the second follows from the

heat at the surface or in close proximitj to the two facts that the resonato:r receives always the same

wires. Such _heating could not occur in a medium possessing eitlier of the two qualities, na.mely, perfect

amount of energy, independent of the nature of the metal and that the magnetism of the metal increases the imped~

incompressibility or perfect elasticity. In fluid, insulat- · ance of the circuit. A resonator of magnetic metal

ors, .such as oils, though they are far from being perfect~y behaves virtually as though its circuit were longer. There incompressible or elastic to electric displacement, the beat- is-a greater potential difference set up p~r unit of length,

ing is much smaller because of the continuity of the fluid. although this may not show itself in the deflection of the

When the electric density of the wire surfaces is small, electrometer owing to the lateral dissipation. The effect

t}lere is no appreciable local neating, nevertheless energy of the increased impedance ~s strikingly illustrated in the

is.dissipated in air by waves, which differ from ordinary two experiments of Prof. Bjerknes when copper is depos-

sound-waves only because the air is electrified. These ited upon an iron wire, and next iron upon a copper wire.

waves are especially conspicuous when the discharges of a Considerable thickness of copph deposit was required in

powerful battery are directed through a short and thick the former experiment, but very little thickness of iron in

metal bar, the number of discharges per second being very the latter, as should be expected.

small. The experimenter may feel the impact of the air at Taking the above views, I believe, that in the experi-

, distances of six: feet or more from the bar, especially if be ments of Prof. Bjerknes which lead him to undoubtedly

•. takes the precaution to sprinkle the face or bands with correct conclusions, the air is a factor fully as important,

ether. These waves cannot be entirely stopped by the if not more so, than the resistance of thP. metals.

interposition of an insulated metal plate.

Most of the striking phenomena of mechanical displace-

ment, sound, beat and light which have been observed, im-

ply the presence of a medium of a gaseous structure, that is, _

one consisting of independent carriers capable of free

motion.

When a glass plate is placeJ near a condenser the charge

~~~~~~~of which is alternated, the plate emits a sound. This RHr!Pii~~..:~~~~~~ sound is due to the rytbmical impact of the air -against the

plate. I have also found that the ringing of a condenser,

first noted by Sir William Thomson, is due to the presence

~

of the air between or near the charged surfaces. .

·· · -.. .) ? .

When a disruptive discharge coil is immersed in oil

~; ~~ l(.·-~~~

contained in a tank, it is observed that the surface of
oplilaicse~aegnittastepdr.oduTcheids imn aty~eboeilthbyo.uthgehtchtoanbgeindgues~troessteh~e,

the
dbi~at-

•• ,~.;. su?h lB not the case. It IS the ~1r above the 01l wh10b ~s

'\f. 1
~\~~

.'

\~!li·

~i
· ''i

agttated and causes itself would remain at

the reEt.

motion of the latter; the 01l The displacements produced in

~Y., ·' ',

it by changing electrostatic stresses are insignificant; to

~.io"'~ - - -;·.....,...~ such stresses it may be said to be compressible to but a

' _....~.~~ very small degree. The action of the air is shown in a

1 ,., 1~t; curious manner for if a pointed metal bar is taken in the band

;A~
~

1\.
~.'·i

\~·~~~
'"'

and held with the point close to the oil, a bole two inches deep is formed in the oil by the molecules of the air, which are violently projected from the point.

.

The preceding statements may have a general bearing

.....

r~ upon investigations in which currents of high frequency and

_ :~·.·

•

. '

-~t:·~ .-.~- -J~:

potential are bearbg U_Pon

made use of, but the experiments

th of

e~yroafl.soBhjearv~ena~smworheicdhi r· aercet

~ l 4

· here considered, namely, the "skm effe~t," IS mcreased by

· ·

. · - the action of the air. Imagine a wire immersed in a

medium, the conductivity of which would be some function

of the frequency and potential difference but such, that
the conductivity increases when either or both of these L. •

elements are increased. In such a medium, the higher the

frequency and potential difference, the greater will be the

current which will find its way through the surrounding

medium, and the smaller the part which will pass through

the central portion of the wire. In the case of a wire im-

mersed in air and traversed by a high-frequency current,

the facility with which the energy is dissipated may be considered as the equivalent of the conductivity; and the ~1"·"'-'•;r:

analogy would be quite complete, were it not that

besides the air another medium is present, the total dissi-

pation being merely modified by the presence of the air to

an extent as yet not ascertained. Nevertheless, I have

sufficient evidence to draw the conclusion, that the results

1......-.lli:tlillr::..::J•
___.....,. ·

obtained by Prof. Bjerknes &ir in the following manner

are ; 1.

affected by the presence of The dissipation of energy

... ~(1
.. l'

.... - .,.......... -~ .....

{II;~I 1844-7940 _.'li~ .
..-----t-~~41

.!,·.J · .

-

ON THE GENERA TI01V OF LOJVGITLlDIL\r_A.l WA V.E·s IN ETHER. 1
·. IN a short note published in ~ATURE of February.6, I suggcs_kd

·. .··. an arrangement of four Insulated and electnfied sphtncal

co.~duc.iors ~vifh their ~entres in one line, giv.ing rise t.o ethereal
waves 1n the surround1ng atmosphere, of wh1ch the dtsturbance

·in ' tbe line of centres is essentially longitudinal. But at any

. iiQite distance from this line there must also be laminar or dis-
tQitional waves of the kind expressed in Iviaxwell's equations. 'fhe.object of my present communication is to show an arrangetnent by which a large space of air is traversed by pressural dis-
tiubance, or by waves essentially longitudinal, or by conJensa-

tional-rarefactlonal vibrations; with but' a very small proportion,

practic~lly evanescent, of. laminar waves.

. .

. · L~t ·AA be a plane cucular metal plate msulated wnhm a

.me~al ca~e ccc'c, as indicated in the drawing. Let D be a

d~harger ·which can be pushed in so as to make contact with A .

.::.:·Let A be charged to begin with, positively for instance as indi-

c'.·----------------.c· ·c~~~d by th:e letter~ .·PPPP;

• ' -~ • .

.. , , ;

j •

~ , tf··

w

, •

. ·,t •.

R

N

N

NNnn

showing
H
N

negative
N

electricity

.AP \# p

p

PA

\PJ f)

,.

.P

jJ

p

.P

-....·.;·:.·.:..·.·.: :;· _ c~· _.n...__.n....____.n....__n_. _~c

,• ·,. -

.. " ' . ~ ·, .
. ·. ~
\ ~·· . . . . ; .
by indu.ced it. - Let now the discharger be pushed in till a spark

passes. The ·result, as regards the space bet ween AA and the roof RR over it, will be either an instantaneous transmi~sion of

commencement of diminution of electrostatic force, or a set of

electric waves of almost purely longitudinal displacement, accord-

ing as ether is inco,mpressible or compressible.
H~nc~• . if the .· theory of longitudinal waves, suggested by •Rqntg~n·. ~ . the explanation of his discovery (for the consideration
~f. wh~ch ·he. has given stro:ng reasons), be true, it would seem probable that a sensitive photographic plate in the space betv~·een

AA and RR should be acted on, as sensitive plates are, by

Rontgen · rays. Either a .Wimshurst electrical machine: or an

induction·coil, adapted to keep· incessantly charging .A:\ wit11.

great rapidity so as to cause an exceedingly rapid succ;ession ot .

sparks between· D and A, might give a practical result. In

trying for it, the light of the sparks at D must be' C<uefully

screened to prevent general illun1ination of the interior of the

case and ordinary photographic action on the sensitive pbtt:.

· The arrangement may be varied by making the roof of shce'L aluminium, perhaps about a millimetre thick, af\d placing th~

sensitive photographic plate, or phosphorescent substance, <?11

tht= outside of this roof, or in any convenient position above_1t. \Vhen a photographic plate is used there rr:ust, of course, b~l.n

outer cover of metal or of wooJ, to shut out all ordinary light from above. Thi~ arrangement will allow the spark gap :U D to

be made wider and wider, until in preference the sparks p<bS between AA and the aluminium roof aLove it. The transparen~y

of the alutllinium for Rontgen light will allow the photograph.H.: plate to oe marked, if enough of this kind of li~ht is produced lll

the space between the roo( and AA, whether with c,r with•Jttl

sparks.

tLe l .:\paper by Lord Kch·in. rt:aJ bcfure Rv) :.1 S0ciety on Ft: l>ru:<ry 1_:

-
--

~1111~

-

-

. The new photography has hitherto, so far as generally known, . been performed only by light obtained from electric action in
vacuum ; but that vacuum is not essential for the generation of the Rontgen light might seem to be demonstrated by an experiment by Lord Blythswood, which he described at a meeting of the
c;lasgow Philosophical Society on vVednesday, February 5·
As a result- he exhibited a glass photographic dry plate with · splendidly clear marking which hacl been produced on it when placed inside its dark slide, wrapped ronnel many times in black velvet cloth, and held in front of the space between the main electrodes of his powerful vVimshurst electrical machine, but not in the direct line of the discharge. 1-Ie also exhibited photographic results obtained from the same arrangement with only the difference that the dark slide, wrapped in black velvet, was held in the direct line of the discharge. In this case the photographic result was due, perhaps wholly, and certainly in p:ut, to electric sparks or brushes inside the enclosing box, which was, as usual, made of mahogany with metal hinges and interior metal mountings. It is not improbable that the results of the first experiment described by Lord Blythswood may also be 'vholly clue to sparking within the wooden case. I haYc suggested to him to repeat his experiments with a thoroughly well closed aluminium box, instead of the ordinary photographic dark slide which he used, and without any black cloth wrapped round outside. The complete metallic enclosure will be a perfect guarantee against any sparks or brushes inside.
If the arrJ.ngement which I now suggest, with no sparks or brushes between Ar\ and the roof, gives a satisf:1ctory photo-
graphic result, or if it shows a visible ~low on phosphorescent
material placed anywhere in the space between AA and the roof above it, or above the aluminium roof, it would prove the truth of Rontgen's hypothesis. But failure to obtain any such results would not disprove this hypothesis. The electric action, even with the place of the spark so close to the field of the action sought for as it is at D, in the suggested arrangement, may not be sudden enough or violent enough to pro<iuce enough of longitudinal waves, or of condensational-rarefactional vibrations, to
ar.t sensibly on a photographic plate, or to produce a physical
glow on a phosphorescent substance.

-...
.~

a2m

~.li·. ~ ~111 ·1~ ~ ~ *;.J
-. ~~-:~'~"'- ~~ .J1 ~~~"'A'·i'PP' I _,. ..... ~.4 •

a._.. . . . . .

I IJMII&Bgd&ft&m.* ...

j ~ r.fi ~ .1 \;~
I
~~~~·-·- -'

FESSENDEN

-- ~ ·-. (

~,
j t:'\..

Fessenden could think best when flat on his hack smoking Pittsburgh

stogies; that's when he got his real ideas. At Old Point Comfort, Va., he had

a radio shack built on the sands away from the main shop at Old Point, !O

he could go off by himself and think. Late in 1903, Fessenden set up stations at Washington,

Collingswood, .N.J.

~

and Jersey City;: N_.J.-that was the first overland wireless. In 1904, we made

tests of the Fessenden apparatus for !he Navy on hoard the U.S.S. Topeka. - . , _

The Navy installed a _station at Navesink Highlands; N.J. {Sandy Hook),

•

.. and we had a Fe5senden "interference preventer" receiver at the Brooklyn
Navy Yard. We _were ·able to communicate with the Topeka at sea from Sandy Hook! Later we tried to establish communication between Lynn,

Mass., and Schenectady, N.Y., hut even with a 5-kilowatt spark we couldn't

make it, apparently because of ore deposits in the intervening Berkshires,

but Schenectady heard the Brant Rock signals without any trouble.

Fessenden, whose experimental stations were usually located on the seashore, "ran his office in a bathing suit." Reminiscing one day, Roy Weagant, one of his early assistants, said:

He could he very nice at times, hut only at times. His voice boomed like a hull.•.• He had no regard for cost; he once sent for a 100-horsepower boiler and had it shipped by express. The more anything cost the better he liked it. He was sometimes unsound technically, hut he more than made up for this by his brilliant imagination. He was the greatest inventive genius • of all time in the realm of wireless.
If he had confined himself to being a discoverer and a creator, and had let the commercial designing end of the business alone,· his company would have dominated the world. But he wanted to boss the design of everything, "' to every last detail, including the binding posts. He demanded high speed from his alternators and from his men. Results, plenty of results, and results quickly, were what he wanted. He had an utter disregard of money.

More than 500 .inventions were attributed to Fes~enden in the

varied fields of electric waves, sound and light. His electrolytic, or

chemical detector, _introduced in 1902, increased the range and '

effectiveness of wireless. It used a solution of 20 per cent sulphuric

or nitric acid into which dipped a silver-coated platinum wire about

.-(., r· ~

the the

thickness of a horse hair. coherer and the crystal to

As the

a detector, it was electron tube. ,.

a· step

between

. I'

'· .

_~I·

~~·. -

'A.· .

~ -·

•·
.... , _

~.\rom a photograph in the collection of Dr. R. A. Fessenden.

.

· .,

MEASURING THE HEIGHT OF THE HE.\ YISIDE LAYER

B\' 1neans of this elaborate transtnitter Dr. Fessenden earned 011 expcrancnls tt~

1906. The o crator1 Guy Hill, has since beco11te kno'ic'n to radio fans cver)'7.Phcre

nt C.n/Jtaia

or set_·cral '!cars associated

.

~

·with

,.~fajnr

Grucra!

Gear

e

0.

Squie.r.

., ~~, ....

741

·THE ELECTRICAL REVIEW. [Vol. 68.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

BY REGI~.!LD .!. FESSENDEN.

VERY little is known in Europe of the scientific K.Ork done _ i~ .\meriea, and comequent.l,y tbere is a good deal of repetitJOn to the mutual disadrantage of w01kers-on both ~ides of
the .\tlantic.
. l t may, therefore, be of interest if I gi"'ie a brief descrip-
tiOn of wme of the work done by me relatiV"e to the deter-
mination of laws gowrning the .ptopagation of wireles5
distml ances, together >l'ith a little new matter which hns not he~etofore been published.

w~V'E MEAS"CREME:XT.

A lanze number of receh·ers for electric wans were tested

in the years 189li and 1B97, and a number o{ new ones

in\ented.
In connectiun with recei>~, Eome. Sfruitive indicating

instruments were al.Eo deEigned, one·- of these . being the

·. string ga1yanometer >l'hich "\\aS constructed for_ me, according

to my desJgns, by Mr. John A. Bra::;hear, the optical instru-

ment maker, in 18%. -This proved a qnite satisfactory

· instrument. and has since com·e into nse under the name of the Eintho~en ~tring gah·anometer.

The earlier forms of recei>ers were abanduned in fa-rour

c·f the inl:trument which I have described elsewhe]e.

consisting of a Boys' radio-micrometer

thermo coil.

T'Choiusplpinrgo~ehdeaftaeidrly

by radiation satisfactory,

from and

h·thaaevinh~maaattitineta~s

of putting it on the market was considered by Messrs.

Qneen & Co. about 1899, but this was nCV"er done, though

the instrument was described ai. the 18!19 meeting of the

.American Association for the Ad-rancement of Science. I

found thai this instrument ga-re. fairly satisfactory results in

. many waye, and the general usefulness of the instrument has

.., been confirmed bv 1Ir. Duddell.

.

.

Tills instrurne~t wa!!, however, abandoned in the spring of

18£\~l for the Elihu Thomson 1in~ galvanometer, in which

two coils generate inducti\ely cnrtents in a third coil or ring

suspended at an an!!le of 45"" to the first coils. This latter imtr~ment_pro\ed 'in?ch m?re suitable for quantitative work~

especially m connection w1th resonance phenomena, as its

olanic resistance conhl be kept very low, and the coils were

IlQt in proximity to any iron.

·

With this instrnmenL a large number of absolntelv reliable quantitati\e measnrem~nts ;as made, and the la;s of the

propagation of the waves definitely determined.

It was found that the intensity fell off as the square of the

distance up to distances of several miles, and that the waws

>~'ere not trne Hutzian wans as held bv some. nor current

wans spreading oat at a uniform height; as held by Taylor.

rnor electrostatic impnl~es, one antenna forming one plate of the conllenser, and the other antenna forming tbe otber
plate, as held by Blonde! until 2fter the publication of my re~ults. but were a new type of wans, the exi~tence of which . '\\as stated w 'be possible by Hertz, but the existence oi

which Lad not been demonstrated by him. Tbis ne'i> type

of wa\e was found to be different from the Hertzian wans

;n that Hertzian waws were propagated in a ;.;traight lin•?.

bm these wa\es followed the surface of the l't•ndnctc•r. It

"·as foniHl to differ from electric OEcillation~ :n wires in tbat

wbile it followed the surface of the conduetor. the electn ·-

~tatie and electro-magnetic intensities were in phnse in:;tc:au

of ~)U 0 avart. Tbis furru of indicator was developed imo a ti:le~r :q .L:c

retx·inr. bnt for sde1nifi<; v;ork; it "\\as ahand•·llt:d in faY ot;r

of the hot-wire barretter.

The hot-wire ba1'1'etter COI1sists of a minme platinum wi:·: about '1)00U-i of an inch in diame~er, and about .._)1 of an / . inch le-n~. Its specific heat was such that a fiftieth of an

/ erg is sufficient to eause a change in resistance 11f 1 per cent. This instrument possesses many ad~amages o\er <·~ht:r
instruments for accurate !;"Cientific >~'ork. It introducEs

no self-induction vr capacity into the circuit. It can be

stnndardiseJ so as to be absolutely quantitati-re in thE- tame ·

way as a platinum thermometer. It needs no adjmtmem.

It does (·an be

l~lit)-treanff'eUcCt hthea

tuning of rt:Sistance

the tha

tciirtcuaibt sionrba~nvaJJ

\liamYr.u

J

~I'~t"

irre~;pecti\e of frequency. It can be buried in the ground

or immersed in water w' as to measure the intensity of the

wa\es there, and pOEseEses many other ad>anta~es.

With thi_s imt:nment a ~~at deal of w~rk was done,

more espec1ally m determmmg the way Jn which the

intensity of the waves falls off below the surface of water

l'ontaining different percentages of salt, below the surface of

tdaikffeerpelnatcekiinndtshoef esloeiclt,riacn dosicnildlaettieornmsinwinhgerteh ethcehanWc~r\ees swhhaicvhe

as to make sudden changes of course,

i; afrno~m

the by

water ; means

in
o_f

studying the way a step_-ladd:r in_

tmheeai~nwunrg\ieonsignau~thurepeflwaecabytaednk-

which the waves mcrease m he1gbt m gomg out from a ver-

tical antenna. It was also used largely in making experi-

ments on tuning and in measuring waV"e lengths, and in

detecting possible changes of wa\e lengths with distance.

With this receiver it was found that, when stations were

comtruc~d on_ the sea level close to the_ water's edge

and _provided with ~ wa•e:chute, up to 50 miles the energy

recei\ed fell off directly as, the square ·of the djst.ance. ··
was ·.-::- These experiments -were completed -in '1901 and 190:?. ~-·i<· , In 1902 ·the liquid .bariettcr· -was invented. This

f?nn?, ~hen proper preeantions were taken, to be a truly~-':': ··

t1tat1ve mstrument, and by 1903 the correctness of this law ·

i.e., that the intensity falls off as the Eqnare of the distance, ·-

was proved up to a diStance of 250 miles.

· · : .-.). ·.

~ince that ti~e further experiments have been .made np." to

a distance of a httle over 3,000 land miles, and it -bas been

found that the law still holds.

·

.AniOSPHERIC ABSORPTIO~.

times ' · The weakening* of signals- observed at different

due, amongst other things, to tv;o causes, one due to the fact. .

that some recei-rers snch as the coherer must be adjnste.d leS"s ·.

sensitively when there iS much atmospheric-disturbance-in ·

the neighbourhood, the other due to an actual absorption of

the energy.

. -.

Insulating an antenna or con:Mncting it of such a &.ze.

that there is no ionisation has no effect on 'these lo~rei. Nor

does the weather at either station have any effect on these- ,.· ,..-,.;~,.-.::;r:

losses, as the lo~es depend upon what is going on in the air~~-:~ Z:illl"~~

between stations. It is true that Captain Wildman's expeii- ' ··

ments show that the loss varied with the condition of the'

,,·eather at the stations, but this "\\as doubtless due tcr the :

fact that the stations were close together, 1·.e., only a little· .

o-rer 100 miles apart, so that the ,•.-eather at the stations was .

the same as the weather between them.

In wdrking across the .ltlantic between Boston and · ·

1Iaci.Jrihanish, it is found that the intensities of the signals .

recei-red by either station are identical on the same night. 7 Out of a great many obser-rations made during the last

winter, on 9G per cent. of the tests the intensity recei-red at .
~achrihanish from Boston were identical >l'ith the intensities -
rec:ei\ed at Bostou from - ~Iachrihanisb. Ry identical is-

meant that the intensities agreed within 5 per cent. The

difference which occurred on 4 per cent. of the tests was.

probably due to causes aside from armospheric absorption.

This identity in the strength of the si!!nals would not of itself proYe that the eff~t obtained wok rlace near or at the s~ations thcmseh·es. These results W\:rC, howe-rer. che-cked

in the following way. In addition to the stations at

)lachrihanish and Boston, operators were stationed at the

following points :-One of the company':; cottages. Lynn,

:'cbencctady, Philadelphia and Wa5l!ington, che disc11nces irnm the Boston station bein~. respt:l"tinly. :!t_ttJ yards, :~·· miles. 170 miles. :?70 miles and 40V mile::. The

}faehrihanish station is distam 3.•)tJ.1 !a11d mJ<:s !·r·:o m the

Br.•:3LO!l station. The intensities >~'ere tak~n by measoriug the :men~icies of
certain signals which experiment had ~ho'i>n to be best

adapteu for gi\ing qnantitati>e results.

It will be seen from this that a wiue range was con:red,

and the rL-snlts of these experiment:- <:bowed that the absorp-

tion did not take place at the stations. The amount of this

absorption \aries ~ery greatly. In making the comp'lrison we will ·~onfine ouw:!Hs for
the present strictly to measnremen~:: !Dade at night, on

account of the fact that the amount of sunlight will \ary on .

JJTerent da>s during the danim~. Taking the beH ~night a~ ~tandarJ. and it may ~ men- · ·

tioned that in every case so far -examined, the best night thousandth of the strength ~t which signals were recei.vea·~n \

never exceeds the theoretical intensitY, thereby showing that the night of January 30th.

\

there is DO rejfeclifm, the intensities Oll the worst nights were

On the night of January 30th, the strength of the signals

as follows for the following distances.

received agreed almost exactly with that deduC€d from

(By intensities on the worst nights is meant the intensities theoretical considerations. The 'signals were of course on

which may be expected to occur as often as three or four that night qnite loud, and some of the operators amused

times a moi1th. The -fact may here be noted that these themselves by reading the messages with the telephone held

worst nights appear t.o·oo really worse ni~hts, i.e., not more 3 in. from the ear.

·

than 1 per cent. of the total ~ights will be found to be worse

Incidentally it may be mentioned that the amount of

than the worst nights. This would seem to i..pdicate that on power used in making these tesU! during the month was

the so-called worst nights the absorbing body occupies almost approximately 4 H.P. On a number of occasions messages

_ the_entire path of the waves between.the stations.)

were exchanged using only a single horse-power. · ..

This atmospheric absorption will -be seen tp be perhaps

Station.

Distance.

II SirengU! of signala received on wont nights (streugU! of nna.b110rbed signa.la being

---------------1-----__----, -t&ken as 1,000).

the most important factor in wireless working over long
distances. Work has been commenced on the stations at Boston and iYiachrihanis.h wi~h a view to increasing the intensity of tpe signals one hundred times, and it is e."\pected

Company's' cottage Lynn ...
Schenecf:ady . .. Philadelphia :.. , Waahington ... Machrihanish ...

200 yards :

1,000

1 30 mile& . :
170 miles

1,000 bOO

270 milea - -· ·

- 300

400 ~lea _ .- _. .. -.- 150

3,000 mil~_; -: - ·'_ - .-· --, 1

to have this work completed by the -fall of 1906. When
completed it will be possible to hear messages with only
one one-hnndred-thonsandth of the strength that they come in on on the best nighU!. It is not proposed, however,to·.
install one hundred times the energy, but ID:erely to .use :

. --. .
nJi . a It will be seen that 'the · absorption ·increases a.8 a ·high
power of the ~i.stance, at least ~tO. ~in distance.

about 50 H.P., the intensity being increased ten times by the ')

.a8e of a-new forni of receiver which is approximately-_ieiJ --

times~ sensitive as the-liquid barretter:_-

- --

There is some indication tEat _after a 'few thonsand miles the

° CILL'WE OF_ WAVE-LENGTH.

rate of absorption becomes cQristant. ··. For example, on certain

nights there appeared to be ind1eations at. ·the Boston station

of a double set of impulses being i-eee{ved,-one about a fifth
of a second latRr than the other. ,Jt is tO.oearly yet to make
any definite statement in regard ~·this: matter, b~t there is .
some reason for thinking that the- seco"nd 11et of signals arrived at the station after goii:Jg the _longer way round~

To take an actual numerical example, the strength of
signals receh·ed at Boston from Mach.rihaiUsh on the night ., of January 30th was 480 times that of a.u4.ibility. If the
second set of signals .went around the other· way, their intensities, according to the square law would be -

.

· 8': 252 or ·aa 9:25, i.e~, 1: 70; -'

hence signals which had gone. the other way round would

A very interesti.Dg question is wh~ther then~ is ~y change

in .wave-length .in transmission · over _long - distaD~. , .

Th~retically, there. should be no change, but it see~~ ~

advlEable to ascertain the Iact. _

- : . . .' ~

-In measuring wave-lengths the writer commenced .in 1897 ·_

and 1898 by nsing a long solenoid and vacuum tube after

the method. originally devised and nsed by Tesla. in 1893,

and later by Fleming and others. It was found that th~

method ·did not give sufficiently accurate resulU!, and, more·

over, it could not be used to nieaan..re waves accurately at

any considerable distance frorri the station. A methOd . therefore, devised and put in practice in 18~9, which

capable of measuring wave lengths accurately to a fifth --ol:
1 per cent., and which at the hands of different observers on ·-

(

have an intensity of .

· -

different days, bas given results agreeing to one-fourth of

= 74800 7 ti.mes stronger than a.ud"1b_ilt'ty.-

1 per cent.. The fact may be mentioned here that the wave- -

a As mutter of fact, the second set of ~goal~ which we
may call the echo signals, were really nearly t~ce as strong. This, of course, might be taken as an argument against- their

,I

having come that way, but I am not dispose{! to consider it

as a _conclusi>e one. If, however, they did come round the

other way, it is evident that the rate of absorption must
a become uniform after. a certain distance. I subjoin a chart (fig. 1) showing the variations for single month in working becween Boston and Machrihani.sh, the

month taken being that of January. No sending was done on .January Is~ on account of iU! being a public holiday.

1, Ante nna : 2, \'ariable inductance: ll, Recei ver; 4, Condenser ; 5, Ground: 6 a n d 7, LamP". FIG. 2.

I

Flo. 1.-Ct:RVE SHOWING VA.BuTio!i OF I!rTENSI'l'Y OF TR~::ts ­

I

A'I'L.a~Trc ~!ES.'HGE..~ FOB THE )Io~TH Ol" J..\;:n:.A.Ri, 1906.

The intensities taken were in terms of a standard intemitv wh!ch was about three times that of the lowest intensity ~t wh1ch messages could be read under the best conditions.
The ~ariation, as will be seen, is extremely great, and on three mghts, i.e.. on January 13th, 1tlth and 31st, the
strength of the signals recei>ed was approximately only one-

length sent. oaL by the :Jiachribanish sU1r.ion has been m~asured at Boston to within one-fourth of 1 per cent. by th1s means.
In this method a variable inductance is used. as it is difficult to construct an accurare variable condenser ha>"ing any very wide range. T.Je Yarley-Tbomson rheostat was at first used as a V"ariable inJnctance, but it was found tbar. \fith the low voltages met with in wireless work the contacU! could not be depended upon. A variable inductance 'on a new principle was therefore devised, in which the contactin!!' cylinder of the Varley rheostat is made of a tube of pure electrolyte copper having a spiral thread cut in it, so that all , tht! wire wound on to the copper cylinder forms the
~ .,*~;-· ·~1/J 1/ll..f .-!}....

T'!.lli•~~D!~ . ~.

.t
746

THE ELECTRICAL REVIEW.

(Vol. 58. · No. 1,485, lliY- 11, 190'6.

primary of a transformer, which has a short-circuit secondary

SuiDu.nY.

-namely, the copper cylinder. The wire can therefore be

insulated and co>ered with a coat of varnish without inter-

fering .with the action of the variable inductance.

This variable inductance is placed in shunt to a standard

air condenser, the resonant circtlit opened, a hot-wire

barretter inserted in it, and is connected to the aerial and

ground as shown in the figure. _

.-

Non-inductive resistances, consisting generally of lamps,

are inserted in the aerial and ground connections at the

points 6, I, as shown in the figure. This is for t}le purpose

of rendering the antenna oscillations deadbeat, thus leaving

only the supply circuit resonant, and thereby avoiding all

questions of double frequencies.

·

With this apparatus measurements were made of the wa>e-

lengths at different distances from sending stations, and it

was found that there was no variation in- the wave-length am~unt~ng to as much as one-third of 1 per cent.

It is too early yet to draw definite conclusions on this sub-

ject, but the following statements seem to be in accordance

-with the facts.

1. There are large masses of absorbing material, probably

ionised air, in the upper atmosphere. Down near the sur-

face these masses are not continuous, but somewhat resemble

clouds, and their size diminishes as we approach the earth.

2. In temperate climates wave.<~ sent out do not reach up

to the heiaht of the absorbing masses. and hence are not
absorbed appreciably up to distances of ioo mnes.

3. Bevond distances of 100 miles the waves reach up into the abso~bin(7 matter and are absorbed. Beyond 100 miles

the abrorpti;n increases at a rate proportional to a higher

po-wer than the first of the distance. Beyond se>eral

thousand miles there is a possibility that the rate of absorp-

tion becomes constant.

'

4. For long distances the absorption may be very great,

AEOLOTROPIC ABSORPTION.

and more than 99·9 per cent. of the energy may be absorbed.

_It has been found that the abso;.ption varies in different directions on different nights. On one night stations can be readily heard which are located in the South, while on

5. Sunlight causes the height ·-at which absorption ~kes pla_ce •to approach considerably nearer the ground. . .
6. Sunlight acts by changing the air in some way, pro-

'- ~

liWMS~ other nights stations tO the East and West can be heard bably by ionising it. This is shown by the ;rapid_ rate at

'

o\_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ /··c· best. There is considerable evidence in.favour 6f dil!niction
effects being produced. There are also strong indications that the ·

which si<Ynals die out after the sun rises, sinee, to take the

air case of the Amazonas stations. 15 minutes would not be
sufficient to sUlow the ionised to flow downwards to an.

extent necessary to produce the absorption.

·

7. In tropical countries the absorption height is much lesB

than in temperate climates.

. ··

8. The absorption may be aeolotropic-i.e., there may be

SUNRIS£

SUNSET

much 9.

Ia~retahteerteambspoerrpattieonzoinneontehedriereicstiocnontshidaenraibnleandoitfhfeerre. nc.e.

between the absorption at night and during the daytime.

FIG. 3.

Between distances of 300 and 1,000 miles in the temperate

zone there is considerable difference between the absorption

absorbing masses are not continuous, but somewnat resemble

transparent clouds. There are alro indications that the

size of these clouds varies considerably, the diameter varying

from about 150 ft. comparatively low down, i.e., within five

or ten miles of the ground, in tropical countries, up to

masses having a diameter of at least two miles, -and much

higher up in the air, as indicated by the experiments betweerr

Boston and ~lachrihanish.

·

at night and during the day-time. In distances of over

1,000 miles the difference is not so marked.

·

·

This suggests that the action of daylight is to lower the

level at which absorption takes place, and hence, when

stations are so far apart that waves reach abo>e the absorbing

level even during the night-time, the lowering . of _ the

absorption )eve! during the day does not produce so marked

an effect as in the case of stations .whose waves lie below the

To go thoroughly into this matter would require more space than the Editor would, I believe, care to allow me. I -will merely refer to some experiments made between two of our stations on the River Amazon 150 miles apart.
At these stations it was found that the signals had an intensity of 20 during the night time, but that "'ithin 15

absorbing level at night-time. 10. The height above the earth at which marked
absorption begins to take place may be roughly estimated as about 300 miles at night time and 100 miles during daytime, for the temperate zone, and 100 miles at night-time, and :30 miles during day-time for the tropics.
(To be wnt£nued.)

minutes after sunrise the signals bf>came inaudible. The

curre showing the strength of the signals was very abrupt,

as shown by the full line of fig. 3. After making certain

changes in these stations, -which somewhat increased the

strength of the signals, the curre took the shape of the

dotted line shown in the same figure, in which it will be

seen that the slope is more gradual, and the relati>e change

in the intensity of the signals is very much less.

D.1 YTUIE A~D ~IGHTTDlE.

As will be seen from the .Amazon curre, o>er short

distances in tropical countries the difference between daytime

and nighttime is very marked. Between :Machrihanish and

Boston, howe>er, so far the indicationR are that the difference

bet-ween daytime and nighttime is very much less than that

between good and bad nights. A sufficiently extended

series of oLserrations has not been obtained, but ro.- far the

indications are that the worst day is not >ery much worse

than the -worst night, while the best day is very much worse

than the best night. It is expected _that more -will be .

kno"U of this as soon as we have had time to make an

extended series of obserrations. rp to the present time the

days ha>e been so much taken up with experimental work that there has been very little time for ~nding. We have,

however, quite a complete set of tests between Washington

and Bo.ston, a distance of 400 miles, both daytime and

nighttime, and these tests show somethiug of the same

character, i.e., worst day gi>es signals of about half the

intensity that the worst night does.

· ·

. if" ~ ~~ ~ \ -'""

.··
Rev. Joseph I·.~urgas' First overland transnission of wireless & voice(radio) 1905
Wireless r:elegraphy Station, Wilkes-}Jarre, pa.

.·• •• 0

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t

Father :\lurgas' Antc!lna TO\\·crs Built in 1905 in 'Vill~cs-Barrc, Pa., ncar his old Slovak Church of Saerrd ilcJ.rt.
(

._ _,;.4"

·~"II 1-.,·r '!, J~IQ,j

The Murgas System of Wireless Telegraphy.

•• J ....... · ~- ...

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h·l•k• lo mnn• for lll.,.llt;.:••tu~ ll•ruu~h

d t~lur l.tfH"~ 111 ll •t dl•c-r 1nJ 1.ha·

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nulton to rro..lul't tlifTrrt-nl ap.uk frc-

quruf'il-:& frttln a ••unrt~ of currt'fll •ilh·

out thr rmrlo.vm•·nt uf inh.·nuptcra.

.\U11Iiary an•l ollwr ohjrdA of th~ iD·

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u the 'I'('Ualua at the l•o alaliou.a i1 itl('nlu ·al, an ilhu.lr~tliuo 1'1( Ute •J•Jlaratus at one ia 1unicit.ut for tit(' puq~ of 1.h~ rip Iiun.
llclt· rrw~ lo Jo'i~t. I, a dalion rompriet:a lllf'fllltn;: 1f1J'IH11Ua /\, ri"Ct:i win.! l(ll'afltUI II, lite uaual anl.A.:nna.: or w..-ial win: C, a.nd ••· itd1i n,.;: ntcJna IJ, fur conm"Cling either lhe ,.c:ntlm•: ur the n~i,·i nt; appanl\1..4 to U11.: anlt·n n:r at will.
The .,.ntllll;: app:aratua C'Ompriac. a
..OU"'C 1 of 1ltrrualing: CUntol, OM l.t'r•

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tf,lfrn Ll f" t4 h lr~ C"ntflld)""l 10 J'hN.• ,,f
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•rU loo..a t.o b.r att.taJaat upon the rup-

In lht acro1np&I\J'•n.: t.lra ..tncs, which tllu .. uatc lhc an•cullon,
•rr•· l'ig. 1 is • tl•a,;ram sl•u•· •n~; the
ratu• o( OOt .t.lloD tfltl tftt tonnoclicH1 1h1·tro!.
r.g . 2 u • Jet•il of 10 amrrond tmrcr·
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prou·d arnn(Cmtat of l"t'C'tl"Dg •ppan.·
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The trtnlmfftiOD of & me.•tt" pre-anr~.. Ole (lillt:Dt"C of two alat.Joo•, ooe wndiog ud the ot.hu rtt<iwLD«, bat

tn11ul u( • hu·h ,. ronnt'f"lt'o.l to a t.l'r·

n11ual o( tlu· (HUnary o( tlu• tranaronut"r

2. The olhcr luttunal of llie primary

"'''I •• C"'Oiw-t1f'tl tn our

o( an llltluct.anre

3, •n•l ai!O to onr trrn1hlll ola oormat11

.orw:n twitch or "ey -t, the olhcr t.cnnioal

ol lh• ow itch king t>nn«l<xl to . lbt oth<r

lf',..tioal of Ote allunAting-<:urnnlaoaroc.

Olhu keya, :;, 6 and 7, aimiler t.o the

hJ 4, '"' olso ronooct.cd lo lhe lut.

mealionr.l lf'nnlntl of lh(' eoun't' 1, and

lo lAps lokto !rom diff•rtnl poiola ol th•

indudanf'C J. JO IJtal by ciOolin&' u.e

:\ pag-e from The "Electrical "'oriel" Dec. 2, l!l05 with an artkle h~· Father 1\lurgas definin~ the 1\'lurgas System of \\'ireTess Telegraphy.

".dreless station of Father 1\Jurg-as huilt on tlif' point in the city of Scranton, PcJH1s~·Jvania .

-~
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;:.:.:··..
JOSEPH ~MURGAS THE NEGLECTED WIRELESS PIONEER

· Michael Novrocki and Scott Stefanides•

It-o

----O-n-A-pr-il-2-7-, 1-9-05-, -a-~m~a~n~-·i-n· -W-ilk-e-s--Ba-rr-e,---l-ev-e-l o-f-re-co-g-ni-tio-n-. -F-or-go-tt-en-, -th-at-i-s, -ex-ce-p-t b-y-~

PA. using primitive -~home-built wireless a few dedicated groups who have kept the story

equipment, sue~ sends ine.ssages to a alive over the years.

similai station in Scmnton, PA. ·32 km to the

In 1988 two juniors at the Wyoming Valley

north. . And on November 23, 1905, a public West High Sdwol in Plymouth.; 1'A, entered the

demonstration attended by govcnmmt and 1988 National History Day Competition -

media representatives is also sucassful. · What "Frontiers in History: P~ople, .Places and Ideas"_

was unusual about tiJUe tests .ir that the operator - with. a media presentation entiiled "'Why Can't

was able to send test traffic succiSsfully at 50 They Hear the Truth.?," the story ..of Father

WPM through heavy atmospherics, Oller land, Murgas and his wireless aperiments. · The

compared to the aisting Marconi capability of project, by Michael Novrocki and · Scott

15 WPM, in the absence of thunderstonn . Stefanides, astounded the judges, who were

interference. over water. . .The man was Father .·· . amazed to learn of the accomplishments of the

Joseph Murgas, the "Radio PrUst, • pastor at,the ·. "radio priest. • After winning at both local and

Sacred Heart ·Slovak Church in Wllkes-Barre,
s: who Juu1., according to the official report of U.

siate levels, the entry took first place on June 16, 1988, in the national cont~st at College Park,

Navy representative Lt. Cmdr. Samuel Robinson, MD, achieving a near-perfect score. In ApriL

the best wireless system then in v:istcncc.. , ' , : 1989, members of the .A WA. · attending tlzt:~

H-7zile the Murgas system ~-as protected by regioriaf'meet at Tranquility, NJ. werepri-.·iieged

basic U. S. patents, tlie fates decreed that he to meet the two authors and their teachers, and wouic be aimrw forgotten by histof)~ while . to see the slide-presentation ponion of .the

Marconi and Fessenden would rise to the highest project.

-Ed

Joseph Murgas (pronounced •Muhr-gosh") raise funds for his wireless experiments. In the

'IA.'as born in Tajovo, Slovakia. on February 17, spirit of the times. he built much of~:.:; app~:-:!­

1864. While still a young boy he showed remark- tus.

ablt! promise; as he grew, he de-.·eloped interests

After an unsuccessful demonstration by Mar-

in both the physical and the. biological sciences as well as demonstrating gifts as a painter. A" a young man he attended numerous ~hools. in-

coni to the U . S. Navy, Murgas. who had already done much of the basic investigation, began war~ i'n earnest in 190:!. After a year ~f intensive ~·ork

cluding the Electrical College of Vienna. where with early mornings and late night\. the only ti.n1r.:

. he pursued a strong interest in electriciry.
· physics. ani.l mathell)atics. He began experi-
menting with win~less. dabbling with mathernati-

available to him. he had perfected his Tone System. an apparatus rt!portedly capabk of. trammitring signals for 70 miles over land anJ 7()0

cal equations.

miles over water . He applied for and rcrcivt.:d C.

However, he was destined for the priesthood. S . Patents Nos. 75Y.8::?.5 and 759,826, issueJ on·

In due course~ he was ordained in Slovakia as a Mav 10, 1904. In all he was to receive 17 patents.

priest in the Rol""an Catholic church. Unfortu-

• Commercial interests were attracted. and on

~' .

nately. hi~ predilection for accuracy anJ truthfulness led to his exile from Slo••akid when. as a

Novcmhcr ~ S . 19~. the lJniversa! Acthcr Tc!e · graph Co. wa s forme~ at Washington. DC to

4

recognized artist, he was asked to comment on promote the "Murgas System of Rapid Wirde.s.s

.X:/ and rendered an unfavorable opinion of an official historical painting sponsored hy the Hun-

Telegraphy" with an eye to competing with the l:mdline telegraph companies.. Two large an-

garian Magyar government He emigrated to the United States. arriving in

tenna towers were erected on a rise at the rear of the church, and an equa.Uy prominent str~cture

April. 1896, and shortly thereafter became the pastor of the Saaed Heart Slovak Catholic

was built in Scranton, some 19 miles to the north.
A successful private demon~tration of the -rune

Church in Wilkes-Barre. PA Over the years he Sy~tem· was given on April 27, 1905. and an

Krvcd his church with distinction. but his appar- equally successful puhlic demonstration on

ently insatiable curiosity Jed br. t0 pursue.- hi." other interests. both a~ a naturalist and as an c:x-

Novc:mher 23. 1905. when the first W<lrth sen: were •Glory be to God." ·

penmenter in the ne-.o.· dtscipiinc oi ""·ireies.\ .•

Marconi. the: acknowlc:dged expert anJ Jeadc::-

He _a!~ worked a ~ an artis: . ~:!tnt: pamttnp tC' ir. wireiess. wa~ having difficuily in transmiuine:

\l
i \

( ',\ r \ •

\"" signals over land, and on a trip to the United

from 19l4 ·-to 1916. Th~.:~~iuaJ· decision of

States asked Thomas Edison for advice. Edison Judge Julius Mayer, recorded in The Federal

referred him to Father Murgas. Ove_r the next Reporter on January 7, 1916, was that neither

several years Marconi made several visits to..the Wilkes-Barre area to meet with · ~e . wirelesspriest and study his system. ~urg3S,' who was

Fessenden nor Marconi invented ·what they
claimed, but that Murgas was the true inventor of l16.......
the Tone System and should be given sole credit. -~ -.

older not in the best of health, and with little or

Unfortunately, it was too late for Murgas:

no fuancial backing. eventually ·decided that the
interests of wireless could be serVed better by Marconi The patent rights were transferred to

time had passed him by. While the lawsuits were in the courts (Murgas was never directly involved in them in any way) Marconi was selling his sys-

him.Murgas _~~~-·f-~· ~. --·t~~discont'mue his .

tern in Europe. Likewise, both Marconi and Fes. senden systems were being sold in the United

· work for a·number -of reasons.·· The Scranton ·· ··StatCs: with. the U._" S. Navy' adopting the latter.

- towers were..destr(:;yed in_~ 'gate in late 1907 and While Murga3 was eventually ·recognized as ·the

them were J ftinds to..replice

not a"vailable. Shortly . . ·original inventor, he became the.forgotten man .

thereafter,. two of the.principal backers died and who realized noth.i.Dg from his work. . . the remaining investors were reluctant to .eommit ·. _. Murgas }lad many_:h9n_~~- bestowed o~ him

further. Murgas ~opped experimenting around . :·..during his lifetime. He was reportedly named bv
eo:- a 1912. Finally, iri ~ber. _1916, _the Unive~ · · President Calvin Coolidge to chair a feder;l
AetherTelegraph . ~isbanded, Victim . of . :.. "Commission on radio in 1925, but declined due to

competition, · politics. . and ·Jack -of capital... . :· 'ill health. He died at age 66, on May 11. 1929. Eventually, at the start of WW I, the gove~ment But the Reverend Murgas was not totally forgot-

ordered the Wilkt!S·Barre towers taken dowri. · ten. and other recognition followed even after his

After Murgas ceased his investigat~ons, Mar-. . · death. In 1939 the only radio station in Slovakia
was coni introduced ·a wireless apparatus named the · · named after him, ~nd also in 1939 a com-

Sonorous System, which embodied the basic el- memorative Slovakian stamp was issued, recog-

ements of the Murgas Tone System. Almost si- nizing his wireless acromplishments. Another in-

multaneously, Professor Reginald A. Fessenden teresting honor: In 1944 President Franklin

introduced his Tuned System. Ironically, Roosevelt named a Liberty shio the Father

Fessenden began suing any wireless interest Joseph Murgas.

·

which infringed . his system, despite · having

Joseph Murgas was a truly gifted man. and his

~ __borrowed from _Murgas. . In __~.!Y_court_ ~s~. ___jn.genious ~s_are a recorded part _of an impor-

Fessenden lost because the Murgas Tone System . . tant frontier in the -history- of oommunicaticins

day patents were brought up as an issue. He then . ... ~edu1ology. Perhaps some he will receive the most sued Marconi, and the court cases dragged on recognition he certa.Wy deserves. ··

·

·

(Conrinucd on r :1:

~4

Dra'll.in~ from Pate.'l: 111!~.10:>. ftleJ i.."I !C/05. L"-"uec Arril e. JQO!l. shov.in~ tht- Mur~a~ iJrraratu~ m il" ia:e:- an~ peric:c1ec term ( ~-= .Ji.<..; Ejec-..r~Cti WoriJ. Dec.:.. Jl}{):'i 1
~·
J

~-
~

~

:l . ~ )·

··.l

\ ~

·-"' .',.~ · ;,f~ .....' ·• . '

.:. )=~·'"'l.,l

The rec~iving instrument, disassembled
HONORED BY HIS NATIVE LAND
One :0£ · Two Postage St~mps : Issued By The
In~epJrictcnt Slovak Re·
prihlicr ·Tn l!l~!l llnnorin~
Fa1tlu: r1 l ~illrj!.:U Fur llis ,:A<hie~~ment, In Wireless
~~~ :~·m1~ ;sc.ur.ce; ;.·
:- .~':-;':,.~ ~:>· .
~~. &&\ .. >A.~ ·.. ·.:..\~ :.:.:L.·:~·nt.

tion of Postal Telegraph, the Western Union. ~d

Some further notes on Father Murgas and his the Canadian telegraph companies, aD of which

inventions may be of interest.

were well established Thus his market was ship-

1. The double tapered wooden towers built to support the antennas were unique, measuring eight meters square at the base. They were

' to-shore and transoceanic business.
4.. Marconi had. a practice of purchasing~ patent nghts .to potent~ useful inventions, as a-...,~-.

spaced about 12 meters apart, and were joined by

a crossbridge at the ~meter .leveL Wooden

poles were attached at the 46-nietei- points. The

I overall height of each tower was 61 meters (200

were feet). The tops of the poleS

joined by steel

defense agamst compehtors . like Fessenden. Thus he bought rights to some marginally useful patents from Thomas Edison in 1903 (3]. The
Universal Aether Tel. Co. held legal rights to the Murgas patents, so it is reasonable to assume

catenary _e:ables from which ten insulated copper
I wires were ·suspended to form the radiating sys-

that they were indeed sold to Marconi. ._: . 5. ·J?Mly_wireless ~~~c:m.S• _were tied to par-

tern (per D. -K. deNeuQ. · :·~ ·.: · ., ·

· ·ticular· types of detector: -· -Marcon~ the coherer

_-wawings -- ~ .2. The 1904 Murgas patent

show .a · and th~~ magnetic .detector; Fessenden, the elec-

basic spark _transmitter. The primary winding of . --~Jyti~ Murgas-·lisea: an· imperfect-contact type

a spark ·coil-iSfed battery current through -either :..: ~v<>:ly~g ~~ag~-~:9_rbon,. with a slight DC e~~ilr.l~ <?f two ClectroJytic interrupters ·of ~.different -_~_::::_bJas .flln:~nt_fro"! a l~ battery [4]. This was

operatin~ frequencies: _ The operato~s key ··· -~-the ~sic .design u~ by__Popov and ~ Massie

selected between them. .The r~L was two -- - (the Oscillaphone )(5]. - ·Murgas' verswn used

tones, a high tone for the Morse.<:ode -doi, 'aild a ___· _several carbon-tO-steel contacts in parallel, v.'ith a

.r~~C.iflti!3.

low tone for the l\forse dash, produced with great.. · · rapidity. The superior speed of the Murgas

·steel needle slowly re\iolving against the carbons. . 6. .As a part of their_award-winning presenta-

.,.

system over that of Marconi was due. in large tJon: the authors have prepared an annotated

pan to the code pulses. differing -in pitch and not bibliogn.phy on Fr. Murgas. Copies are available
in length of time. The higher pitChed signals .to OTB readers on ·request to the editor. .

were '!Jso much easier to read through at-
. mospheric interference, compared to a
! conventional spark signal of the day; they

7. Murgas deserves recognition for devising a t~ree-state predecessor of frequency-shift keying:
high tone, low tone, no tone. It is not far

· ' .: sounded less like static. The use of high-pitched ·technically from there to a pure high-tone/low-
; _spark transmitters for plain on-off Morse . tone syste~ as·developed by Edwin Annstrong in a.;,~_.

·_(Marconi's "disc discharger• of 1907. the 500-Hz · · · !he Twenues [6J .and used he:1vily since the

~ quenched gap. etc.) later bec<ime common.

Forties for radio teleprinter transmission.

I 3. A comment on the ~U~ -of the Murgas -- ·8. The a<:companying pbot~ are taken from .

system over land is in order. A key part of his in- S~ephen J. Palickar. ·- En:. ~ Mur~as:

stallation was the ground system. six buried steel ~ ~ in Wireiess Telemph,· and

containers filled with ~<Her. One source re- Radro - A . ~ Biogr:mhv (Wilkes-Barre.

viewed stated that during the ftrst public e:ocperi- PA: Murgas Memorial Foundation. 1953). · -

· ment in 1905 Murgas successfuDy forwarded

9. Finally ••. this is not _a new story. ·For

, messages not only between Wilkes-Barre and example, an excellent article by Alice Brannigar.

: Scranton (32 km) but also to Brooklyn (164 km). can be found in •popular Communications• for

In realism, it is necessary to mention that June, 1985. Unfortunately. a key source. Gordon

Wilkes-Barre and Scranton were connected bv a Shook, WJSZ., Oile of Father Mun~as' las:

~4

m;es, railroad with its usual telegraph A!'Jd signal
line. and by a major AT&T telephone toll
Propagation over this path could be expected to
~ be unusually ~ despite the high earth

surviving students, became a Silc=nt Ke:--in 1957.
-Ed.
REfERE.-..;CES

resisri\iry refl~ion

in eastern Penns)'h'ania.~- -:.-_ ~~ (No

on

Fr.

~u~

but

pbc:jng

-
wirdess ___

~ PPfI AH.A_cG.m. LJee. sArci:ilakbeaoau..n~ .A&~WC.~ 2a~ . t-t~=~ l·. P1P- .M(lN_2<~wriiYW• od2:f

Sci-
B.t:

suttons near tdegiaph lines v.-as used by -411 - .. ~ (Pnnc:ctosa. NJ: -~~Plea. I5!SS}. pp. 2::!.6

duenmscorunpsturlaotut.osnporof ma motaerrgim.na1Esuyrsotpeem"tIoIJ_i.m}-_p_ :r_o__v-:e_~·:a-

~P..H.lsi2Ml34l·.. JJ9S~9).p~p. -l8lt-llai. ~- -· ·~- Y_or_- t:.

At the s.:une time. M~n:oni's commeroaJ 141 lh£ !:f.!!Im .~ !![ ~ ~

nc:-eds were for improved tDnsrniss.~ ~Liy,

not pa rtJc·uJ.·ar,_':-.- over land.

T-
.u;

th e

Bn·u·sn·

1~es.

th~ Pos: Office held a legal mmopoly O\'~!' aU

{nuladc:lpltil: llaiYcnai Actlwr TeJquarlt Co~ Jfli[W). pp

fN.'q-:1L.

Ul(nd~tibl.r~ ccuona"ecsaovro: OlTbBm.. V~-ol:,

-
}>iQ.

4

~ ·

t9S:). pn !5-lo.

bnJ tekp-aphy [:] Jr. ~orth A:nericl.. M:1r.·.·-..:mi toi E. H. ~ ioict~ or .R~ LA.: E."~ (;;.

v. au ld have: haJ to be-:: the:- d~tt:::r.m~d opposi·

A::nosphC'TlC Du:urt)ancc._ • Pro.: IRE. \"t>< 16 Pi<' ! lhn..ar.- l~q~'- 15-:.0

~-~ "~

..:~ IJ

Father Murgas:

Radio's Forgotten

Genius

Somehow, The co·ntributlons To Early Wireless By Rev. Joseph Murgas Have Gotten Lost In The Shuffle. He May Well Deserve More Credit Than Marcon!!
BY ALICE BRANNIGAN

T11e picture postcard tl1ot ran lost December
,, ror·coMM actually shows th~ towers in
rlf 1:ntinll~· completf'd :stat~ Th(' tope; hod nnl
yet been added

I D.!u•rnt~r 11 the

issue of POP'C'OMM.

Ibn,• i1J1J1l'Mt!O " V('fY old pktur.- poc;tc:i'Hd tw,umg the C.:l\ption. 'Tl'tlu~r Muryas Win• Ic-c;-; Telegr.,ph St.,tion _.. In f(>~tnching lh('

r Mel. W\' dwc kt•d tht' U'iUlll data sourn•s <111d d11"A' t'l lot •.,! hl..,nk

Y~!. tlwr~ w~s no doubt ltbout the fell I

II 1M thf' !lf.,tion - ciid 4-'Xi"'l. thow two IMy.•
WIH•Iesc; tow4!rs ( ouldn't l~ J~ni~d Hut u:lwr~ u.·,,<; ltw o;tltlion. what w.,, lhf' 'ifl'lllrHI.

l'lnd \A:ho Wi'ls f atlwr Murgl'lsJ TI1.?\t's whl'lt u.·o· ll\~1·d 11111 H'tldt'l'> to lt'tlu, wl..·n Wt' 11'111
11'/pmtcor<J

R"nders told us; did ttwy evt.'r !l>llus1 Even though we hadn't been able to locale lnfor· matlon on Father Murgas In~ huge st~ck of refl'rence books on early wireless, we came to l~arn that the station on the postcard was most histork and the man who designed and built It was a brtlllant inventor whose many llccomplishments are. today. little
~mtWu m4ttf4t• ~ W•lK.t-"'"'"", P~fHltyl·
vanla.
From our vantage point here at the tail
end of the 20th century, and after all of the many advances In the field of telecommuniCi'ltions. we tend to overlook all hut a few of
the very highest profile wireless pioneers
whose efforts were directly linked to the sucC('c;<;ful commercial development of com· municatlons, men such as M.1rconi and DeForest .
But in th~:? orwn;ng years of the century. there were other e>·perimenters whose efforts Wl're no l~:?ss outstanding than those
whose names fill the hi<itory books . Rev. ,J, ''~~'Ph Mury''"· f, >r '""-'. dtt•w tht• ~Y('S of the communications world to W11kes· Barre.
where he served for almost 35,years (until his death In 1929) a!; pasflH of S.icred Heart Slovc'tk Churt h

Beginnings

Murgi'ls u.·"c; horn FebruMy 17. 1R64. In Tajov (Jabfiknva) . Zvolen County. Slov~kia.

1\rthe MJl' of 1H he decided to study for the pri~sthood ~no entered the ~min~ry lit Ar~lislllv~. Two y('IH'i l11ter. In 18M. he tr,mc;fl'rTI'd In tlw semin.uy at o~trihom u.·h,•JI'. in 1ldd1tion to Ill'> lht•ologicdlstudi~s. ht> b~g<'ln his first electrical ~nd wireless ex·

rwrinwnlc; In ,,ddltlon to thew effor1s. he

Wi'IS ~lc,o stud).'iny henc.:h. German, ad·

'.

\.'rmc+'d phy-.ic-; , ftlld C\slronnmy Further·

more. he w~ts enrolled ~tl the celebrated

/\1 tldt•my of 1\rt, In Munkh

OrJi'lined in lHHH. Murq"c; cnntinued This Is th«! way th«! compl«!ted towers looked

1 /_~;.

/

\~;·¥~ ·~ \

with hi':> l\r1 studies \n Munich illld lntl'r yr cHI ·

t lli'lh'd wit'' honor·. end t~wnrch <"!'. an i'lr .

! u ( (1111\lII<;Il\•d

p

..
u

1,,,

..
~

r

.

l h•

contltau>u

with

hie;

. c-1~~ trkr~lt~nd wireless experiment~ nn 'L'V('"

"mol\qd nl the Electrlce\ College of Vhmna

""
-

~i1'lulryil'\lodov; e&nlc~eodhse1dued

ent nu

. mber

of

wry

s\rony

po\lticlll opinions, end h• wes "" nrd,•nl

pntrlot end stud•nt of the lives of the meny

Slovnk figures who fought for freedom from
th(' clutches of Hun~fary for elmost 1.000 vc•n" 1 hi' topic wa~ the focu~ of mnny of his

mo~t fnmous pi'llntlngs. lkr;liiW of his wtd" u•c-ognltlon In th{'
11rt~ . Murgas wes asked by the Hunger\nn yovnnm.,nt to t've\uate e contempouuy ralntlng which was to be disphsyed In the
llunqnri."' Pnrllnment. This pnlntlng dt>· ptct.;d th~ cxcupt~tlon of ancient Slovi'lklll by till' M.,yyars "' tht' year 907, obviously a S'H'' p<;lnt with the lnten5('1y netlontsllstlc
t·1uru"s -t te felt thtst the pninhng ftslled to de·
plrt the event with honesty and promptly
chi'lri'lc'tl'tiLed the scene as e "tragic mlsrep· H!~~n!i'ltion," further denouncing It es un·
·-~·qrthy ol ert. It wM not whet the Hung~rhm govern·
ml.'nt wa11ted to hear. He wns charged with dl~lovnlty nnd 1\lso of having proven hlrnst'lf M hnving anti-government tendencle~ .
Under Hungarian law, he was obligated to
IPnv<' the country, end thereupon depa11ed for tiH• Unlt"d Stnt~s. arriving Aprl\6. 1R96
It wasn't tong befOfe he was assigned to a
church in Wllkes·Bllne. whkh wns newly romtruct('d . He beceme the dr\vlng force In expnnding th<' Influence and serv\ces of this rfi!W·f#, ~t..tM-Jtf.ffi4Jtf f.tfvtft'Rt Stt-;vairkAmC'rtum organlulhons. end 51111 found time for p~inting. fishing. collecting butterflies and
moths. botany, end. of course, his experl·
mf'ntc; with w\reless.

.·

···h·..;·:s

(
~.

Lt Crndr Si'lrmwl S . Robinson. US N .
witn;·~~d tlw h >-.h i'lnd u•port<'d tlwm " most
S.l\l.,(.u-tnry .'" notiiiCj th.,t Mw~·'~. h ,u\ tlu •
best system of wireh.'sS transr~lss_lon - mw
which threateneu to rcvolutlolltle world·

Th~ Sacr~d Hearl Church in Wilkes- Barre (Photo by Ed Shedlock)

communkf\tinns Tlw probl'-'m here w.1s tiM! our ~IIVI'tt l
m'•nt h&d a\really ~ntert>d Into contra( h with MMconl (l\S did other govern~ents) lind ht~d purch<'~S4•d million ~ of dollius worth
of M.\Tconi ,,qulpment . Adoption ol tlw Murgds system would
cau~'' a lot of money spl'nt on Marco~~i ap p.uf\tu.:, to he• cntl';irt''"'" il'\ "wi\c;ll•d :Ill' qul'stion was would intcrnatlmMllln~nclcrs allow this to take place . The UruverS<'II A~thet people felt that they could do battle with those forces only If they could match th~ir wealth. That was a major obstacle.
In the meantime. Murgi'ls journeyed to New York to meet with other wireless pio ·
necrs. This included M<1rconi and his associ ale. Fessenden. Marconi was so impressed with Murgas' inventions thi'lt he went to
Wilkes -Barre to see them. Gordon Shook. of Wilkes-Barre. recalls
that he was 16 years old at the time and had become interested in wireless. He was aiS<) curious about the Murgas station. so he paid the Inventor e visit . Murgas Invited him In and asked Shook to describe his own sta·
tlon. He then took young Gordon on a tour of the station and explained the Importance of his ground system (It consisted of six buried steel containers filled w\th water con-
nected to his wireless apparetus). "'
ne Murgas also took Gordon Into an und~t­
ground labofetory had built ln order to
conduct en experiment for General Electtic.
This experiment was to develop an auto-

Wireless Experiments

In 1898 MurgBs built e small laboratory In

tlw pMish house and developed a system of

communication based upon two high-fre·

quency tonE.'s (tones of diHerE.>nt pitch). one

trme r\'presentlng (and In common with) the

f-.1uts<' code "dot" and thE.' oth{'r the "di'lsh."

'~

1''""I 1 1 This ~r mltted fester tra~s mlssion speeds
1 1te .~ mconl system . .. urgi'ts lr<msmit · tPd hi~ sign;,ls v\ft rotary spark, with the sig r,-i'tls fl'd mto a single pole antenn;, with a distributing arm at the top. from which wires extl'nded . ' In 1904 Murgas hed obtained U.S. Patent

'7S9.825 ("Wireless Telegraphy Appcnatu~" ) lind •759,826 ("Method of Commu-

nic aling lntelltgence by Wireless") . Th~se pr~tents were sotd to the Universal Aether

Curnpany of Philadelphia. 1 he Murga~ Tone Sys!em Wl\S eventur~lly

rm•Prf'd by no less then 17 plltents . The Unl-

vers<'ll /'1 f'ther Company was actually a

sroup of flnenclen who wanted to mi'lrket ·1hr. Murgas Invention. This syndical{) ~pC'nl

;)b0ut $25.000 for 200 -foot transmission

towers In Not1h Wilkes-Bane and ones 19

miles away In Scranton . Nothing like these tO',.I..'<'r5 ht~d ever before been comtructed .

Th{' towers were first tested on April 27 of

In front of the Sacred 1-/earl Church is a plaque dedicated to Fat.'1er Murgas. The plaque read<;. in part, .. in the earl~· days
n/ radio communication . II•• created and developed to practical use 1 major aduance- i
"wnt in tlw nir tlral opf•nrd tlrl' wa~· to im· · prou£>d and dPpendob/1· rodin transmission
o11er great di~tnnces . ..
~
1905 Several prominent community lead·
u.-s . ers. as well as a repre!'('nti'ltive of the
Navy. were present . The first official test and public demonstration was offered on No·
\.'l?mhE.'r 23. 1905 . It was an event that re -
ceived nillional rnedii'l coverage because It attracted member'> of the scientific community . the government. and many rt•sidents of the arei'l
The results were stunning . For one thing, they proved the pract\callty of wireless transmission at long distanc"s over land: they al~o introducl'd Murg<'ls· superior method of teleqraphy . The tests went v..ithout a hitch lind MurgM was i'lhlp" to SEnd his traffic at SO
u:pm (the Marconi syc;tem ri'ln at 15 wpm)

Model of Father~ radio towers which stands near th~ site of the original station .
(Photo by Ed Shedlock)

(

One ilf .the more unique events .In the ca.lendar of. activities of

the Count
~UtnJdreir etnhte

yleaBdiceeunhtiernnoifalt~eCoMmurrruguuio~nmaIts eunrowRabdeiom.gClupbl,ananerde-.
of OM o the f1rst transnussion and recetpt .of mes-

sage, by wireless communica- transmission and reception

tloa overland will be held center wiiJ be set up In Scran-

5\Jnday, Nov. 23, 1975.

ton at the Sheraton Hotel.

The held at

reen11ctment Sacred Heart

wCihllu~hb.e

Stanley of the

CGorritn'!meevmlcozr,atcoivc~haiCnonman-

601 North Main Street, mittee, will man the Scranton Wilkes-Barre. As the original station. The Sherllton Hotel

event, it will be held at 2 p.m. ill located on the former sit('

In the school auditorium.

or a radio tower used in the

This will mark the 70th· 1905 event.

tarnannisvmeirss~alroyn

of the by Father

Initial Joseph

Following transmission

the and

m e the

sp~s saegn­e

Murgas, a pioneer in the field tation of several rommemora-

of wireless communication.!.. tive plaques, and address will

A3 outlined by the Murgas be given by Commander

Commemorat'ive C o m m i t-

tee under the direction of

~Dvaevnitd

Watkins, the will faith(uiJy

Nov. 23 duplicate

OarJeetpsreeatrnhladteliinoAgonrsitgChi(neowaphlpColheti,rweafanU.~soSmfNips,r~Nei~stov'enea)npl.t- ~

the actual event by including A aocial hour Will conclude

message. transmission by the the event at the Sacred Heart

mSc!ryanotnon,oftheWpialksteosr-Bouf rSe~tcarnedd

School. The coordinator

of

this

a~ Miso~f Heart -church and the Bishop event for the County Biren-
o( Scranton, as well other tenniaJ COmmiuion is local and national dfgni'taries. Mary Barrett, Chairman

The me.,sages transmitted will Heritage 76 Committee. She

oPbonelgim~sheanlat nMduIqn~L.a1Etsinngmleius~hs,awgeeSsrl.eovtahke,
A.s a faithful duplication of the 1905 event, a se arate

fCGhdihrleSiantrstbreeevo,eifcnzJt.,haessHainMsodtouekrdgeRarb.seyJvr~W.e3ratt,~ke. siunn-rsd

Radio Club.

·

J, I 'Jlt, , Mluqa:;· c·wf~, trur~slll.lss.,ons. wu• c lm~ r~•sslvt.>ly recrt.>ated d~,ning ti.le' T3in•r.lfc•n

·

nia/ celebratrons.

_...

111·1 t.)( s·w,·t<·llJJH.I\ s. ystem for tr.lirlf..l illld street Stenger from South Wilke-;· Barre g<)t on ti.H•

~-

(,lfs c1nd consic;h•d of a IMye y~rwr;ltnr run· . Pop and his son erected two p01Ps wit 1J

nin~ ,,bout 1()() liyht bulbs .

. :::·antenna wire strung across .md bl:!cc1r·"''

4

(;or don H'<illl-; th,1tlhe Ill! XI J,,y Ma_rconl active on the air. The government had Ill~

.,,,, J\l.'l'd IIJl f, '' hi-; visit illld Mury.ls mtrr) · stilllt!d a curbon -arc transmi~er at Murgc1'i

cItH ., ,. t I ('c, ,r•I, <Jn <15 his· "2nd hand SecoIll.dc1ry f:.nqll.ll'l:c'r .. t"V1•tr<·oll.l told MurP~,1S th,ll 1 115 ~·xr··;illH'I\I<; in Lurorw \A.'I'T(' <;\I((I'Sc;ful WI! 1

llh'"~.·'U''~ ~. ' >lilY dcrr>o.;s nul very succpc;sful wit

whalslig~nrcb1u1tptrhoc1pt

i'hlgeawtiaocn;

station and experiments conttnued .
Problems
The o'riginal problem of making all of this

OVI'T l<"ll< I "I'1llf•\'' 1'\ <;t'l'lllo'd dtrrnbfnurHj,IjI!J

"Ill<,, hv h.uln•> pr()blt'mc; '' ',,II \Vtlh "''IIC n~

siqllcll'i 1)\II'T land c\lld IMd hi..'L'll communi·

t .~fill~! thh Wr\V fnr 1111 mthc;l

.

. MoHCIIIli \lol',/l'd ol fi".IJ do~y.;, ctlld lfll!ll T~

a marketable product still loomed over Mur ·

91<'9~ s07a.nMd

the urya

UniverSlSI s had been

A>.?ther aol 1e 1o

people. sen0 s·pe

By ech

owr his sli\llon hy modifkc1llon of hi~ torw

syst~m. ·t·h~·c;e "~Xperlments w~u~ witneslsJc•d

ltJTJII'd fo l"\I!IIJII'

.

( .H HtItill .... sIc..! ,.,I Ill v.-I ts. ' 11,1,• In tnlllllllllll.·

("c\h'

WI tl 1

I :".. tlwr

MurcJ·li· ·

st.,tinn.

,\lld"J>tlwl·r•

wfll:'n Ill' I WOfKI. """' ' ,, "I< Ill I'XP•llldc•d

op

h ., numh~r of people . Unfortun~ttely, nl ·

. V . I Aethl'r did not have the resourn·s

Vl:c'r·1sta1 <s1pVie'1ec•

I1I h

lo fin<mce 't-'ransmission .

T

<'lny he c

o

. lS Ill
mexpte8nn<y.to_ wr a_ s a.l.·.

,

.

.

,

.

.'t~.:~i
:§t:;i}

A'.l:

...

t'Xlsh in Will~, .., ltu H' H• 1h Ny~JH.'Il of thl'
club advises th<'t during the 197h Bict•'llt•n · nilll C"h•hr~tion , rm·mlwr~ of tlw group T\' · n•·.,h'd ttw fanwd \lX)~l ('XP('rimt•nl
A pi<HtU'' i\IHI morHtnu•nl (ronsbti11g of~ mini~turt• reproduC'Iion of Fi'lther t--1urgas' 5ti'\tlon) stnnds nt>ar tilt' origini\1 slh• of tlw Wilk"' .Rllne towers . f-urth(>rmort'. Kin~·s Coll''9'' in Wilkt•s ·BllrH• 1nalntalns 11 C'Onsl,l er~1bl"' amount of Fi'lttll'r Mur~JilS mt-rnor<'l ·
bllia and the lnstiluliun also offers The
R('verend .Joseph Murgas Progr<'\m In Corn
rnunki\llons Studlt>s .

Tht> Mur!los Amofeur Radio Club honnrs tl1~ rncrnory of th~ ch~rlshed priest. s<"icll·
tl~t. ond lnuentor .

"'"•"-; di~o;olutlon~d by tht? domin<lllon of M1111 flni't; vnttJrprl~s In lhto fivld of wlrel<·~s .
f" 1'111:' ~I so pnrtlclpated in the matt{.ITS at h•md 1 h,. Scrnnton st~tion was d\?stroy<•d
bv, storm. Not only that. two of the most m1pnrt"nt ~k~rs of Univer~l Aetht'r sud-
dt>11ly di\!d. Tlwse factors contribut\!d In Un-
iversi'll Aether's abandonment of Murgas . M.1rcnnl 11nd Fessenden, of cour~. hild
lm·>wn of Murg,s and his experiments beIn:~-? tlu•y cnme to America . In fact. M<~rconi f;"tH' up with whllt h" called "Improve· rw•nt-;"to Murglls methods and termed it the
"S{Ifl0UT1>S Syst(>m." Fesc;enden's V('rsion w..,c; rall(>d "The Tuned Sys.tem."

Mury<l-;, for his part. continu('d his dforts I iliff IWidi tt"r"tlftfd if;lit~
L_, Hlg ;,fter Murgas original work on the
h:gh frequencies required for producing the
t()ne effects. both Marconi and Fessenden enterE>d the cornmerlcal market ~th their re-
c;pcrllvl' Sy'stems. Thereupon followed a complf'x cnaln of lawsuits between Marconi

n'ld Fl!ssenden over who had invented the

!orw rnr>tt_,od b,t,sed upon high-spMk fre-

qtll'nn· 1 he usual case was for Fess(•nden
,,, '>·.1e Marconi end the cases bounced h~ck

'1 "d for!h through many courts for a number nf Y''.lr ~ F.ventuelly the U .S District Court (t.;ou!h~rn District of New York) ruled th~t

neithn one of the two had invented the

ln9h <;p;,r k·frequ~ncy required in tone tr;,ns-

rni<.(lon

Murgt~s

wes

nllm"'d ,.,

•. .,
<n

I l l E.'

Ofi.!:J.IIli11r.)f

of tilt' invention. which was being claimed

h.•l-..th

J·,.. r!J(•r Mury,s died on May 11. 1929. f fis IIff' i'!nd work did not go without recognltit Hl _lr: 1939. on the tenth anniversary of his denrh. thE' Independent SloVI'Ik Republic

narnl'd its only broadcasting station after tum .md 1'1150 !~sued two postage stamps in his hnnor . Thf' stemps depleted his WilkcsB<'Irre r.-,dio tow('rs and called him a pioneer Ill Wlfelec;c; science . During WWII an Ameri
CJn Lih•·rty ship was named afl('r him Even . .~4f, ''('.his death he was not forgotten; Presi .
d,:,,t (oqlidge appointed ~1urgi'ls as a mem lw~ n( the Ni'ltional Rad io Cnmmisc;lon

l od,,y . he Is !till remem!Jl•red fondlv hv til(' peorle of WilkE>s -BarrE' Tlw ~1u~q,:,~ Amil!l'tH Radio Club (established in 1y7r,)

In Retrospect

H(>re. In 19HS. Fi\ther Murg,,s'inwt~tinn-;

II* i'\re still regMdt'd as brilli;mt and ahl:'ild of ~

tht>ir tim\! . It was a peculiar ~t of circum -

.fa

!ti'lnces th11t prevented the Universal Aether

Compnny from evolving Into RCA or !\T& T

Anrl what contrihuted to the eventual oh

scurity of Muryas himself outside of his ....

llrlopted hometown? f-ate? Misfortun{>? Mis-

adventur{'? Certainly his work. <'\Swell ,..,thl' m.1n hims.·lf. rlt>~erv{'s a prominent piCKe in ·

t\!l{.'cornmunications history .

Ttw author wistH•s to sinn•rely th;mk th"

following JWrsons for tlwir infornl.Jii r111 .111d

advice in the preparation of this remem-

brance of Father Murgas: Ed Shedlock.
Wilkes n.,rrl.', PI\; Gmd()n Shook, WJSZ,

Wilkes· Barre, PA; Fath(>r Tom Carten K lPZU. King's Colleg~". Wilkes·A;ure. PA: l"o K<1linosky. KB:~SK. Pt . Mntilda. PA;
Roh Ny~lrt'n. WA~YON. Wilkt•s-Rarre. PA .

\ \

tion of Pos~ Telegraph, the Western Union, and

·: Some further notes on Father Murgas and his the Canadian telegraph companies, all of which

·inventions may be of interest.

were well established. Thus his market was ship-

1. The double tapered wooden towers built to support the antennas were unique, measuring

to-shore and transoceanic business. • 4. . Marconi ha~ a practice of purchasing

eight meters square at the base. They were spaced about 12 meters apart, and were joined by

patent nghts to potent1ally useful inventions as a defense against competitors like Fesse~den.

a crossbridge at the 30-meter level. Wooden poles were attached at the 46-meter points. The

Thus he bought rights to some marginally useful pat~nts from Thomas Edison in 1903 (3]. The

overall height of each tower was 61 meters (200 Umversal Aether Tel. Co. held legal rights to the

feet). The tops of the poles were joined by steel Catenary cables from which ten insulated copper

Murgas patents, so it is reasonable to assume that they were indeed sold to Marconi

wires were suspended to form the radiating system (per D. K. deNeuf).
2. The 1904 Murgas patent drawings show a basic spark transmitter. The primary winding of a spark coil is fed battery current through either

. S. Early wireless •systems• were tied to par-

ticular types of detector: Marcon~ the coherer

and ~e magnetic detector; Fessenden, the elec~rolytJ~ Murgas ~ an imperfect-contact type

1

~volvmg steel agamst carbon, with a slight DC

of two electrolytic interrupters of different bias current from a local battery f4J. This was

operating frequencies. The operator's key the basic design used by Popov and by Massie

selected between them. The result was two (the "'scillaphone•)[5]. Murgas' version used

tones, a high tone for the Morse-code dot, and a several carbon-to-steel contacts in paralleL with a

low tone for the Morse dash, produced with great steel needle slowly revolving against the carbons.

rapidity. The superior speed of the Murgas . 6. As a part of their award-winning presenta-

system over that of Marconi was due in large tion, the authors have p_·epared an annotated

part to the code pulses, differing in pitch and not bibliography on Fr. Murgll!:. Copies are available

in length of time. The higher pitched signals to OTB readers on request to the editor.

were also much easier to read through atmospheric interference, compared to a

7. Murgas deserves recognition for devising a ~-state predecessor of frequency-shift keying:

conventional spark signal of the day; they htgn tone, low tone, no tone. lt is not far

sounded less like static. The use of high-pitched spark transmitters for plain on-off Morse

technically from there to a pure high-tone/lowtone syste~ as developed by Edwin Armstrong in

(Marconi's •disc discharger- of 1907, the 500-Hz the Twenties [6] and used heavily since the

quenched gap, etc.) later became common.

Forties for radio teleprinter transmission.

3. A comment on the success of the Murgas system over land is in order. A key part of his installation was the ground system. six buried steel containers filled with water. One source reviewed stated that during the first public experi-

8. The accompanying photos are taken from
S~ephen J. Palickar. &Y. :W_mh ~: ~ ~ _in ~ IeJegraphj• .an.Q Rru;fiQ - A fi!2.W1 B10craphy (Wilkes-Barre,
PA: Mur~ Memorial Foundation. 1953).

ment in 1905 Murgas suc:cessfuDy forwarded messages not only between Wilkes-Barre and

9. Fina.Dy ... this is not a new story. For example, an ~ent article by Alice Brannigan

Scranton (32 km) but also to Brooklyn (164 km). can be found m "Popular Olmmunications• for

In realism, it is necessary to mention that
Wilkes-Barre and Scranton were connected bv a
m;es, railroad with its usual telegraph and signal
and by a major AT&T tcJcphooe toD line.

June, 1985. Unfomn1ately. a key source, Gordon

~~ VI3SZ. one of Father Murgas' last

SUJYivmg students. became ~ Silent Key in 1987.

-Ed.

i

Propagation over this path mold be cxpc:cted to

be unusually good. despite · the high earth

resistivity in eastern Pennsyh;ania. (No

reflection on Fr. Murps. but placing wireless

stations near telegraph lines was used by an

unscrupulo~ promoter in Europe to improve a
demonstration of a m.a.rpna1 system [1].)

·At the s:1me time. ~rconts commc=rci.ll

necds were for impr'O'-ed tr.msmission ~erally.

I no! the

PpaorstticOubfrfh~.·

0\'C
hd.!

l:mJ. Jn ~ British Isles. ;;t kpl mon..,poly ewer all

j land tckgraphy [:; lr. :-;ort.'i Amcno. ~brconi

j wo:.J ::i h:!ve h:.tJ _10 iJo.- th~: dt!tCT.li:JeJ opposi-

/~ I

•·

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IlL- ELECTRIC WAVE 'fELEGRAPHY

CHAPTER VII

THE E VOLUTION OF ELECTRIC WAVE TELEGRAPH Y

1. Early Ideas and·Experiments.-The reader who desires to study

the earlier attempts to conduct practical telegraphy without connect-

ing wires must consult books more especially devoted to the historical

side of the subject.1 From the earliest days of electric telegraphy, inventors had their

__
.~;"'~

attention directed to ~he problem of dispensing in part or entirely

t.~

with continuous interconnecting wires. In 1838, Steinheil of Munich, ~#' . ~ / .. _ -. ~

acting on a suggestion made by could perform the function of a.

Gauss, return

fdoermaontset!reagter~dphtihcatcitrhcueite, a~rntdh

~-,.~{;51-3~\?.;,.~. ~· .,-.~..~.;,.~~

thus made one of the most Important contnbutwns to practical '-'' ~~ 1~ ~'\~ · ~;· ~

telegraphy.

.

·· (

-,~ ~\ .. '

He seems, moreover, to have anticipated that in time improve- ~, . 'l'r· ..1~·~·~ ·-

"t ,. . //.(. '- ments might be effected by which the necessity for any metallic ~ ·, , , \:.. ·...,/ ·,

circuit at all would be removed.2 From the date of that suggestion

~....

the notion of telegraphy without wires may be said to have been ever

r.

present to the minds of telegraphic engineers.

The necessity for finding some solution of the problem of wireless

telegraphy increased as the art· of electric telegraphy itself extended,

even if it were only to enable telegraphists to bridge over some short

break or interval in a metallic circuit. Suffice it here to say that if

we exclude the method depending on the employment of electro-

magnetic waves, the processes which had been previously found

feasible or had been suggested were based upon-

(i.) The conduction of electric currents through the moist earth or

the water of rivers, lakes, or seas. This method particularly engaged

1 We may particularly refer the reader to the excellent work by Mr. J. J. Fahie,

"A History of Wireless. Telegraphy" (Blackwood & Sons, London .and Edinburgh).

1 See Fahie's "History oi Wireless Telegraphy, 1838-1899," 1899, p. 4. (Black-

wood & Co.); also Fahie's "History of Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837,"

pp. 343-348, for the history of the earth return in telegraphy.

Although Stenheil was not the first to employ or suggest the use of an earth

return for completing ·an electric circuit, he was the first to apply it in practical

telegraphy, and to realize its importance.

·

See also Steinheil, "Ueber Telegraphie, insbesondere durch galva.nische Kriifte."

,_Munich, 1838.

"'. 'rl' ~--;;~· • ,. ..rJ

\ \,

i ·

, .""'- _.

. In many cases suggestions were put forward which were based

upon obviously erroneous ideas, and even embodied in patent specifi-

cations without being subjected to critical trial. Nevertheless, the

best of the methods above classified had only enabled comparatively

short distances to be covered. Even the most effective of them, viz.

the method involving both conduction through the soil or water and ·

electromagnetic induction between parallel wires, was extremely

~mited in its'· applicability by reason of the necessity for employing

two pa~el metallic wire circuits almost as long as the distance to

· · be·bridged. . · ·

!

,_;::. ·. A new era. _dawned when the scientific investigations commenced

.-y{hich 'fuially placed us in possession of the principal facts connected

\ivi.th the'··generation and detection of electromagnetic waves, or as

. ~1?-ey a:r;~..~ore _ ~~ortly · called, elec~c waves.

.

·.:-..~::~. Maxwell's .profound speculat10ns and mathematical researches

~reshltea~ '_as ::we__h.a.ve seen, in the enunciation in 1865 of his famous

_:~electrom~etic ·:tl;leory of light. This theory, owing to its abstract ~"~~lltJ

.;JJI.!... 1

. ·~-;!.J~Pmv-e~s~tt~g~at'~_ii~~i~::ul~,9.·tp,·u~abtlifsihresdt

!ully appreciated. Her~z's m 1888, cast a flood of light

discov~ries and upon 1ts mean-

... ·- ::~WS~.:~n~ ~~~p~t- .opening up a wide and promising field f~r experi-

:IJ~~t~~~fMii~ {~~~t&.l :~V:~~tion., gave such enforce:nent to Maxwells theory

~~t it -~~ _pii~-~mmanded g~neral. atte:r;twn.

. .

lll("a •• ~~'".wo

··~_:; ,_ The ·matter, however, which chiefly Interested phys1msts wore ihe

_, ~~lS)~·~C:.W
properties of the long wa.ves generated in the rether by Hertzian ~f!AllJlE

-;As;: .~ ~· methods, and the similarity between the effects connected with them an:d familiar optical phenomena. Hence a rapidly accumulated mass

·~.~ . .L.J~· ; of experimental evidence was obtained, tending to show that luminous ~\radiation is electromagnetic in nature. These electro-optic phenomena
,_ ·.~were sedulously studied, and. physical optics became, as it were, a

, ~department of electromagnetism.

·

When any new field of discovery or invention is thus laid open,

it invites the attention of two classes of minds. There are those who

are chiefly drawn to .i.ts cultivation by a desire to increase purely

scientific knowleqg~, and to explore the mysteries involved, regardless

of any particular ~~.~cjiJcal utility they may possess. On the other hand, there are oth'~is'·~o whom this pursuit of novel facts or effects,

or the unravelling··6f::complicated phenomena, or the construction of

..,~_ .

· ...-.~t..

new .the?ries, does not appeal. They a~e imp.elled. t~ look at once for

~ 4.1~ .. .

\ .-'·.~ apphcatwns of the new knowledge whiCh Will minister to the con-

.. , V. '- _ ~~·· ·~ ··;;,;'1!i venie.nce or mitigate the tr~mbles. of mankind. Pro~ably in neither
~;,_......,.t · ~,!2~· ~ case IS a mo:·e personal motive e~t1rely absent, but whilst som.e I?Inds

. ~rj

.

\!1._ ~ ·

n. .. \ .. . )!-.:';_ "" t•
,~~
(' .·"\r'-

v
.. l

;~.~ . 7~"\'~~·~~~/troeehvtagheaner,rrdsdpi.rtsrohceneogevadertidorscotoarhvtteeeaxmrcyphlooofrnmeln.oyerwaeTsI.phmahepymgoseirecntaaaennlrsacfaletcnottosonao-ntSrhCel~ainewdsn,ots,i-fcaiacasnlpldaeundbienlainycpedpan~Ihtnec,raIa~ttstwohewnlef-s,r

~ ~·',·~,. X,i ~-. ~"t.;~.·;';l.J..~.~.,.~=.:',/:::· l-'··i~~

_....~.~...."..~y;._.~,·

than to the discoveries out of which they have grown. Hence the practical inventor or applier of scientific knowledge generally occupies

·: f~~ -,.,.'~~~-j.~-,~~~ · ~ ~

' \: /!)· ..:. isncietnhteificpuibnlviecstmigain~odr.a

Um~olreessprtohme ilnaetntetr phoassiti~ohne

tghoa~nd

the purely fortune. to

~~· •pl .jf

·

,,:.J~

~

?·~
1:

·

J

make some sensatwnal discovery capable of Immediate technical 1.-

t .

application, such as the Rontgen radiation, his work will seldom

attract notice outside of a limited circle of experts. So it was in the

case of the field of investigation laid open by Hertz. Between 1888

and 1895 a host of scientific workers in various lands gathered in a

rich harvest of scientific knowledge concerning the properties and

powers of electromagnetic waves. The non-scientific public concerned

itself but little with these results.

In 1892 Nikola Tesla captured the attention of the whole scien-

tific world by his fascinating experiments on high frequency electric

currents. He stimulated the s.cientific imagination of others as well

as displayed his own, and created a widespread interest in his brilliant

demonstrations.

.

Amongst those who witnessed these things no one ~as more able

to appreciate their inner meaning than Sir William Crookes. More

than twenty years previously he had explored with wonderful skill

and insight the phenomena of electrical discharge in high vacua, and

had produced the instrument which subsequently produced the ,.:.~~,~~.

Rontgen rays. He allowed a trained scientific imagination to busy

itself with the recent discoveries, and be wrote a now well-known

. • article " On some Possibilities of Electricl.ty " in the Fortnightly ~MIL"S~•tl
.·.;J. · · Review for February, 1892 (p. 173), in which he endeavoured to fore-
~--_,·.,~-... cast some of the applicaljions of high frequency electric currents and

·· · of Hertzian waves.

In this outlook into the future he clearly discerned the coming of

a new form of wireless telegraphy based on an application of Hertz's
--·- .»61"'M.li1U:i~ :

..: ~
discoveries to the communication of intelligence from place to place. ~"-•~

r......~..""'~- --'·'- In the course of the paper Sir William Crookes made a cryptic refer-

::).s~ f~.•ence to experiments in this direction he had witnessed " some years

.~iJ~i':~
'· · ~

ago,'' which in:vestigations

wbeyrethesulbasteeqPureonftelsysoerxpDl:aiEne.dHtuoghreefse, r~ntowhu.nicphubsliigsnhaelds

_ ·-(~A were sent." a few hundred yards," without connecting Wlres, by the

, ~ .. aid of a telephone. No details of the experiments were given, or any

' . · hint of bow the result was obtained. For the purposes of patent

litigation this notable essay has been put forward as an anticipation of OJi--~~

subsequent practical work. It is necessary, however, to keep clearly

in mind the true meaning of "invention." Invention does not con- \

sist in displaying a few brilliant and original ideas. Neither does it

consist in outlining a certain set of requirements and broadly defining

,

the means by which certain ends may be attained. Invention con-

\

· .."'( ·

sists in overcoming the practical difficulties of the new advance, not _....

; ..:J~ "

, , . ·.~~....., merely talking or writing about the new thing, but in doing it, and ~·'l.'~

'

v;,

~~~:.:., doing it so that those who come after have had real obstacles cleared l• ·~ •

-~

, . ·.;... ;-x:,. "":t-'., ~~·- ~~.-.t~~ \ f~; ~~~~

·""': .
/!

out of their way, and have a process or appliance at their disposal,.,. which was not there before the inventor entered the field. In most

·\!_ "'~
·"' t. ·

" ·~~· .- (

·•

..1~. -,_y, ~

cases, ~owever, not e_ntrrely the

the removal work of one

opfertshoen.obsTtahcelefs~rwt ~riscchapbtluorcekdtohnelywaayfitser~~~}_tw~~:T~u(·.,.::-

·.

-.,.

. '

• ~

··\ ',1.~ .~~ k -~.~_·::caasseesnetsheofinatvteancktosr,

each conducted under who breaks down the

a different leader. last obstruction or

In these leads the

~~~ . .

. ' ..'.t;~:'\1.'

.,~

1)td-~;t~~~ ·

'i final assault is more particularly associated in the public mind with · j;.
·•i! the victory than are his predecessors, though his intrinsic contribution Pp '.,:., . may not be actually of greater importance.

There are other cases, however, in which, prior to the work of

one man, we can find no actual achievement, although the end to be

attained, and to some extent the character of the means to be used,·"-N_..,

are clearly recognized.

In the article to which reference is made we find much remarkable

prognostication, but not a description of actual inventions.

It emphasized, in fact, how much at that date (1892) yet remained

to be done. Speaking of electromagnetic waves and their properties,

Sir William Crookes says (loc. cit.):-

"Here is unfolded to us a new and astonishing world, one which it is hard to z:o~...,.. conceive should contain no possibilities of transmitting and receiving intelligence.
"Rays of light will not pierce· through a wall, nor, as we know only too well, through a London fog. But the electrical vibrations of a yard , or more in wave length of which I have spoken will easily pierce such mediums, which to them will be transparent. Here, then, is revealed the bewildering possibility of telegraphy without wires, posts, cables, or any of our present costly appliances. Granted a few reasonable postulates, the whole thing comes well within the realms of possible fulfilment. At the pr8sent time experimentalists are able to generate electrical waves of any desired wave-length from a few feet upwards, and ..,.l''ll'.l,..,.,. to keep up a succession of such waves radiating into space in all directions. It is possible, too, with some of these rays, if not with all, to refrn.ct them through suitably shaped bodies acting as lenses, and so direct a sheaf of rays in any given _ .._..__...__..... direction; enormous lens-shaped masses of pitch and similar bodies have been used for this purpose. Also an experimentalist at a distance can receive some, if not all, of these rays on a properly constituted instrument, and by concerted
·' signals messages in the Morse code can thus pass from one operator to another. ~1~.,~......,.-Jif'tl."ll.;:::::"~-!l~r : What, therefore, remains to be discovered is-firstly, simpler and more certain
means of generating electrical rays of any desired wave-length, from the shortest, ~~l!H • · • • ..ll. --1..: ..1.. ~;n MQilv nR.~~ t.hroug:h buildings and fogs, to

~~~~th~. o~s~e long;;ves whose lengths are measured by tens, hundred~,~~~~!~~~~

·\, ·. ·.,

-. · .·.·i(S~

r~

-.obfetmwieleens ;c esretcaoinnddlyef, imneodr el i mdei tlsicaanted

receivers be silent

which will respond to all others; thirdly,

~ ~ . ~~7 ing the sheaf of rays in any desired direction, .whether by lei:i~s O,!,.

"~~
·l' ~~

the help of which the of the problems to be

sensitiveness of the receiver solved) would not need to be

(apparEJntly the . . so delicate as,_~h~ri

.., ....... .
~h~ ~ ~a.ys

'1 .,. . a· · -~.·.-,.. ,._'.P-

be picked accor mg

tuoptharee1aswimopflym. vraedri1s1e1stiqn_gua.irnmt~o.

space

in .

a.ll

"o<· /,,_,:-" dire·cti. ~o~;,- ...&. ·t.1' 4·!·,.--S.~ ~.\..~~:~~~-~:i-..;{g .;tr~.'.~r:~·~.:;W.....·,:.~t...Y-.,,·l-~.1

'

.

"I assume here that the progress of discovery would give l~strume;tts . ~p~p!~ ···

of adjustment by turning a screw or altering the length of a Wlre, so a.s. to peoome

receptive of wave-lengths of any preconcerted length. Thus, when a.~juated ·to . ~--·-~~

50 yards, the transmitter might emit, and the receiver respond to, ..r&ys varying

betwe<rn 45 to 55 yards, and be silent to all others. Considering that there . w~uld ,

be thQ whole range of waves to choose from, varying from a.· few feet to several ·
thousand miles, there·wqu1d be sufficient secrecy, for curiosity the most inveterate

would surely recoil from ·th~ task of passing in review all the millions of possible

i ., '

wave-lengths on the remote chance of ultimately hitting on the particular wttve- .

· ·

..,. Ju*· , . \ ,. ·,

-... ·"p..

.'- )N~"f.

length employed by his friends whose correspondence he wished to 'coding' the message even this remote chance of surreptitious straying

tap. By could be

. ,'::

~~' . ~~">.··~~ . obv!~i,h~~ needed~~ ~·· i•t.· ~..,-~....·.~~·'

· /.

is no mere dream of a visionary philosopher. All the requisites to bring it within the grasp of daily life are .well within the possibilities.of dis-

·

1

~~v~

, .'n 3t' •

• . T, v ,

·,

covery, and are so reasonable and so clearly m the path of research~s wh1ch are _....,___

t.

·
1;..._\r' t·..

' ;
~\ l\

~ •• .1.·-· _' \': ~-\•~,;_.,~,eonxfopwseoc?bteertionfaghceata.c.rtitvEhevaleytntphnreooywse,hc~muvtdeeedeemdin,etreegvleeedgryrfraopciDah:pmittghaelwo:iefthaElomuutrsowop~ueestsph~IcaSutlpawo.~ets.lin~bnllae.m!tWa~nityth~idnosa!e1.y~~.\ ~~~1:~"'l'-c~;J\?---!.J=''.,:,r..'.~-·~~~~~~~

·~ ~ .

..:~ restncted radms of a few hundred yards, and some years ago I assiSted at expen-

, "-'' 'J< 'Ti\ .· :~

\

• .-: ments where messages were transmitted from one part of a house to another ~~~"!.tj. '~ ~~ ~

~~..... ' '

'i without an intervening wire by almost the identical means here described."

·; i 1. .,/~~- _ -' •

J[ ,,7( . The above vague _reference to
wires over a short distance was

experiments on at a later data

~eleg:aphy without
1llum1nated by the

'J;

'/r:__:/~
' ., ·~.. . /.-

account given by Professor D. E. Hughes himself, of the ·precise

t

,_____........_ nature of these hitherto undescribed experiments.3 In the course of

,~~---his work on the microphone, Professor D. E. Hughes had occasion

to notice the wonderful sensitiveness of a " microphonic " or loose

joint between conductors, and its variation of resistance under impacts,

such as those of sound waves. He included such an "imperfect con-

tact " in series with a voltaic cell and a telephone, and found that the

resistance of certain kinds of contact was effect/3d by electric sparks at a distance. U ~fng a contact between carbon and steel, he no doubt ~..a..~-;~a

constructed some · '}~rm of self-restoring coherer, and made the im- •::..···r.r......... portant discovery-·that the discharge of a Leyden jar at a distance ~.,.,.,.

caused a sudderi :~·variation in its electrical resistance, and hence a

sound in the telephone included in its circuit.

i

.

Professor D. E. Hughes stated in a letter addressed to Mr. Fahie,

on April 29, 1899 (lor. cit.), that he showed these experiments in

December, 1879, to Sir W. H. Preece, Sir William Crookes, Sir W.

Roberts-Austen, Professor W. G. Adams, ·and Mr. W. Grove; also in February, 1880, to Mr. Spottiswoode, then president of the Royal ~~AI4!,#JIP ·

Society, and to Professor Huxley, and Sir George Gabriel Stokes, the

secretaries. In a~ition, he exhibited them to Bir James Dewar and

. :' ·.
1 '/?;,_'-..

J\fr. Lennox. results at the

tH~mee

wyasfinadpipnagretnhtalty ~id~isGceoourra~geedStofrkoem~

cpoun.bsilidsehri~ndgththeye

. . ·. .:> were due to ordinary electromagnetic 1nductwn. It IS, however, clear

~'A~lil.l-..ll~tl"'t·w~...::~r:,., from the statements of Professor Hughes himself in 1899 that he had

3 See a letter by Prof. D. E. Hughes in The Elect1··ician, Ma.y 5, 1899, vol. 43 ....r..-•...• p. 40.

.:JT.-..:.1

. discovered (but not an~ounced) in 1879 a number of facts afterwards 1rediscovered by Professor E. Branly in Paris ·in 1891, and he h~d,

in fact, been using a self-restoring carbon-iron coherer in series w1th

a telephone which was affected up to a distance o£ a few hundred

yards by the electromagnetic waves created by an electric spark. If

at the time he had publicly placed these observations on record, he

would undoubtedly have anticipated some at least of Branly's work,

but much remained to be done, which was subsequently done by Hertz and by Marconi, before electric wave wireless telegraphy~ in ~-B.'~

any true sense of the word, could be translated from dream to fact.

Four years ' pas~ea. by, however, without any fulfilment of Crookes's

scientific prophe~y,- ·although the most eminent physicists continued

to work at the ·s~bject:

On ·January --1, 1894, the scientific world heard with profound

regret of the death of Hertz.

I . ~(:"";",*"'• ·

"-· m~··\' '~.-;.·, .

I",.•·

On Friday, June 1, 1894, Sir Oliver Lodge delivered a memorial ( /.

_:_,fi4-

'trA;. -. : '· lecture on "The Work by Hertz," in the Royal Institution, London. This lecture was remarkable in many ways. It gave many 1t'1 persons the opportu.nity of Se~ing, for the first time, striking experi. ,_,

-~ v,· \"-: . - t.~

. '1 . ·. \ ·\t:· ... \ ~.. •• · •. , , ments. ~erformed ;v1th Hm;tz1a-r; waves. The lecturer made us~ of J-1.' ~ _ !}...,... -

1., \

'-

1 !''

~b.___ v~

~-~:.\paermfeocdtifmie~dtalBlriacncloynstamctetoafllhicis

fihngs tube, and also of a own invention! as a means

loose or liD· of detecting

J·~, . '

~.t·':J$~

•

-..~....' :

r .;) · · 'i the electnc waves, and he gave to these deviCes the name coherer, by ~ · .. which they have since been known.

The tube was a glass tube loosely filled with iron borings and . , ,:.

closed at the ends with metal plugs or caps. It is represented about r ~

one-third of full size in Fig. 3 of Chapter VI. The other form of

........................,.. coherer was a loose or microphonic contact between two pieces of

'1I&JIII.~.......... metal, the pressure of which could be adjusted so that the junction

offered too great a resistance to pass the current from a single cell,

but cohered when electric waves fell upon it. In both cases the tapping

back or decoherence was effected by hand after each experiment.

Experiments on the reflection, refraction, and polarization of these

electric waves :were shown, and their passage through stone walls

from room to roqin .. . .Yet, although replete with interest, the lecture, ,..~.A;::]'JE•rd

as originally delivered, contain~d not even a hint of a possible applica-

tions of these electromagnetic waves to telegraphy. The lecturer

throughout fixed the attention of the au.dience on the similarity .

between the effects obtainable with these waves and those better known

effects produced by raysof light.

It was, in fact, an experimental demonstra.tion of the. undulatory

character of the electromagnetic radiation from an oscillator, and of

the electromagnetic nature of ordinary light.

Subsequently the lecture was published as a book, the first

edition of which bore the title, " The Work of Hertz and some of his

Successors."-'

These experiments and soEvariations of them were repeated at

the meeting of the British ssociation at Oxford in the following

autumn, but here again no men · of the application of these waves

to telegraphy was made, the object of the experiments being to

..~..~... -~

illustrate an. electrical theory of vision, and to expo~,~

:·. . . of the electnc waves.15 It is highly probable

that

·
these

articles

-~f.e~~~ ·;;_-.;);'~.:v,~
an.d

.,._.-..--c_.,.... ..__ .,.,..,.....,,

home so forcibly the power of an electric spark --~ -~affe~_t .0.~. _

deflection of a galvanometer at a distant place, must ·pa.~~ ~ei!. -t~~

thoughts of many ingenious persons to its utilization'' as"a ~means - ~f.

.......... L- · ·· sending telegraphic signals. Subsequently we were informed .that the matter had begun to occupy t~e minds of Dr. A. · Muirhead,--...-~~

Admiral Sir 13:. B. Jackson (then Captain in the Royal ·/Na.vy); ·a.nd..

.u~~~,.

Professor R. Threlfall, and perhaps many more. · ··· ·

· -:.

Amongst others, Professor A. S. Popoff, Professor in the Imperial

· <1

Torpedo School in Cronstadt, Russia, directed his attention to the

. .,, ,

subject, attracted to it by Lodge's lecture, and desirous, as he says,

'.?~~ "' .

.of repeating the experiments both for lecture purposes, and for regis-

V':, \. 11.\l;./ .·

tering electrical perturbations taking place in the atmosphere. His apparatus and wave detector have already been described (see Chap.

{f·'-~

~

f."' '"' .

~VI. § 3), as well as the publication of his description of them, and

!.~

rl ..;... I . ,.,,_ experiments COnducted With them in January, 1896, in the Journal of (·' :"\.~~..;..-::·.~

. \t': ·, . .~. ~

~ r;~ -~· ...... I

. ., \

•

1,

-v.~-.·:~-.~,athpepaPIrthaytisusicsob-weCyahosenmndioctaqltuhSeeosctiicoeotnym, omhfouSwnt.iecPvaeetrtieo, rnsthbouafrtgi.tnhteelluisge~nchee

· made of his
to a. distance,

Trf~: ~,_~

,~.--,~~~ ~ ~ri·-· . ~~

~~·~~~. \\ ; ~

.

.,......_..._' :

'I ·1but for studyin~ at~ospheric electricity. The observations were ;· ,... .~--·~\ ·-·~ ~-~

'\:'t' /!'',(;" .._ ~~made at the Institute of Forestry, St. Petersburg. Popoff says- r· .,J :.;~ ~ "Upon the building of the Institute, amongst other arrangements made for I \' .. ,,...

·.

I

' '

observing the direction and force of the wind, there was a sma.ll wooden ma.st

t ·

·

about 4 sajen (28 feet) higher than the rods carrying the anemometers and wea.ther~...~lllf'' cocks, and which was furnished at the top with an ordinary lightning point a.nd ,_._.,_.__._..... rod. This lightning rod, by means of a wire carried first on 'the wood of the ma.st,

and further stretched across the yard on insulators into the meteorologica.l obser- ·

vatory, was connected with the apparatus at the point A (Fig. 2), whilst the point

B was connected to a wire which served as an earth conductor or connection for

the other meteorological apparatus, and was connected. to the water-supply pipes.

The registering arrangements consisted of an electromagnet, to the IU"!Iiature. of

which there was attached a Richard pen writing on a. Richard recording cylinder,

making one revolution per week. It was found that the apparatus responded by n. ring of the bell to every closing of an electric circuit which was recor$1ing "'~'-<TIIt:l.-.

observations of the direction and force of the wind, since electric oscilla.tions were

then set up in the conductors connected with the apparatus by the coxlunon con- .

ductor leadjng to the earth plate. In order to distinguish these marks from the .'

others made by atmospheric electricity, the observers, who produced the ringing, '

made a note each time on the cylinder. This action upon the apparatus was,

however, useful for the purpose of being sure that it continued in good order." .

That this primary object was not telegraphy is shown by the
paragraph with which he concludes his paper (loc. cit.). He says- ...-:)/.&l4\,......

" In conclusion, I may express the hope that my apparatus, with further improvements, may be adapted to the transmission of signals to a. distance by the
aid of quick electric vibrations as soon as a means for producing such vibrations possessing sufficient energy is found."

We are left, then, with this unquestionable fact that at the beginning of 1896, although the most eminent physicists--had been occupi~d for nine years in labouring in the field of discovery laid open by ~ittlll

5 See The Electrician, August 17, 1894, vel. 33, p . 458. For pictures of ~he T,nngA anna.ratus exhibited at Oxford, see The Electridan, vol. 89, p. 687.

r.-~~--J-'... Hertz; and although the notion of using these Hertzian waves for
..-: ; · ~ · r. teleg~aphy. had ~een clearly sug?ested, no o?~. ha~ overc?me the
~<~~·~ pract1c~l ~t.fficult:es, o~ actually given an~ exhib1t10n 1n pub~1c of the ,.JF"'~ transmiSSIOn of Intelligence by alphabet1c or telegraphiC signals by

. I' this means. The appliances in a certain elementary form existed, · ~~the advantages and possibilities of electric wave telegraphy had been

~ · .,. ~ pointed out, but no one had yet conquered the real practical difficulties,

and exhibited the process in actual operation. 2. Marconi's Work, 1895-1898.-Meanwhile, a young investi£ tiiiJMIIM_,.~

gator had been busy in Italy. Guglielmo Marconi was born at

Bologna .on April, 25, _1874, and very early displayed an original and ·

inventive mind. ~-~{3, ,~studied physics under Professor Rosa of the ..

. ·..

Leghorn Technicat:~cbo9l, and made himself acquainted with the

;· .~

\'

. .,,.;

published writings 'of Pt6fessor Righi of the University of Bologna,

-·

r-- . -~~4· i
,. r

\.

•}-..:..' ;~ .. .~•w._ h~ose Whvean.lhu~tbtllee

work more

on electromagnetic radiation was :vell known. than twenty years of age, :1'Iarcon1 had not only

.....
_,a.!,

«.· ' . . ~~.....
~~l....'\;.~~.i...~~t·~,~ · ·

accleqaurilryedfomr~uecdh

knowledge the intention

of of

Hertzian devoting

hwimavseelrfestoeairtcshu, tibluiztathioenhfado;,r;...\~/.~

~
fl4i=
\.,!_~t.v~ ·

~

'\ · · \Hr~'~~

,-.: \
~,·._.'

'.
..

'. ~·~·-)~>beeffgeaOcntninegxhWpiseirrifemaleteshsnetrti'enslgegeirsnatapJtheuyn.aet,

the Villa Griffone, near Bologna, 1895, with Hertzian waves, using

he~~_,·~·~. ~~/ _~_ _·- ~=

an .~,- . ;l'\.. .

_

·" ' , •: , . : 4 ~-~ ordinary spark induction coil, and making for hirnself experimental

, ~·\11 ' .,.

\ 1 ,..._,
...,.,..._....._ ·

.. : coherers or various forms of the Branly tube. Before long he .. ~· ·

·

· 1 .; •

,,.' '

1~oreirgti~nI~atnedfoa:n~

iomf prao~ritaatonrt,.ihmepcroovnenmecetnedt.

Instead of one terminal.

en1ploying tho of the secondary

t~.~.'~d-!~.

y~

mrcu1t of his Inductwn cml to a metal plate or net laid on the ground, ~ '·,

and the other by a wire to a metal can or cylincler, placed on the

summit of a pole. The spark balls were kept at such a distance ~--..

than on closing the primary circuit of the coil an oscillatory spark

passed between them. At the receiving end he similarly connected

a metallic filings sensitive tube between an earth plate and an

insulated conductor o·r capacity. He then began systematically to

examine the relation between the distance at which the spark could

affect his coherer and the elevation of his cans or cylinders above

the ground. This brought him speedily to the discovery that the IMI'-''~~1....-.
higher the cans the greater the distance over which he could work. -

Thus in 1895 he was using cubes of tin about 1 foot in the side

as elevated conductors or capacities, and found that when placed on

. the tops of poles 2 ms. high he could receive sig:rr-als at 30 ms.

distance, and when placed on poles 4 ms. high at 100 ms., and at

8 ms. high at 400 ms. With larger cubes of 100 ems. side fixed at

a height of 8 ms. Morse signals could be transmitted 2400 metres,

or 1~ miles all round.

Before this time, however, he had improved the Branly metallic filings tube, and lu;~ced his own nickel-silver filings sensitive tube

already described (see Chap. VI. Fig. 4). He had combined this <~ J ·. ~ sensitive and regularly acting improved coherer with an electric- a1~~lll

·. ';?;, tapping arrangement, but with more e;areful insight into the condi-

,.. .:~ tions to be fulfilled and a greater range of adjustment than previous

"&..l<....,~..,.,.lla.;,;::..:.:~1.- /· , workers.

"'

aii.:~DI

He added also to the filings tube a pair of inductances or choking J.~a'Vl!41111

~~!1~ !-L---.:l .. .:J L" ~----- .. ~L Lt.." "l .... L-! .. ,,_ , .,!li .. L!"-~ .,..,., ...... ;....,,.... +-h~"'nrrh thtl